例析阅读课例中教师重复话语的功能特征
一、引言
英语课堂中的教师话语不仅是教师介绍语言知识、组织课堂活动和执行教学计划的工具,更是学生语言输入、互动交流和意义协商的重要资源。在教学过程中,为了达到与学生交际的目的,语篇方面的教师话语具有“常用第一人称,多进行重复或重述,经常采用诱导性对话方式等言语活动”等(Chaudron,1988)的语言特征。
话语重复是指会话中语音、词语或短语以及句子的再次出现。李艳(2010)根据关联理论指出,话语重复是一个明示过程,可以表明说话者的交际意图,并不是一种简单的思想再现,它可以为听话者提供新信息;也是一个推理过程,是一种获取最佳关联的途径,有助于听话者对话语进行推理。话语重复是一种常见的语言现象,也是一种修辞手法;重复常常是说话人为赢得思考时间进而调用语言资源使会话持续下去的一种策略(高淼、林敦来,2016)。重复从宏观上看,起着组建话语的框架作用,呈现出讲话人和听话人的心理动态情况,是会话顺利进行、改变话题的连接器和表明不同语篇的指示剂;从微观上看,重复可以使语篇加强连贯性,起着回应和再现的作用,是证实、澄清、强调语言使用的手段之一(李悦娥,2000)。
重复是话语结构中的重要组成部分,是语言交际的重要手段之一,也是教师话语的重要教学策略之一。英语教师在课堂互动中经常用重复的方式设计完成整体话语结构,以达到清楚、完整地表达思想的目的。杨艺媛(2012)认为课堂中重复的有效运用可以对学生的语言学习产生一定的帮助作用,从心理学的角度对重复进行探析可分为以下几个方面:(1)强化记忆;(2)即时重复比延时重复对语言学习的效果更好;(3)作为一种补偿策略的使用:重复属于其中的转述策略。运用重复的补偿策略既可以表示对对方正确答案的认可,也可以是对对方错误回答礼貌的否定;(4)作为反语的心理认知。蒋敏红(2008)认为英语教师选择词汇层的同现和复现关系可以加强语篇的衔接。而语言学习者在建立某个单词的词形和词义的关系之前,需要反复接触,最有效的方式就是即时复现(immediate recall)(Chaudron,1988)。
在一节基于语言知识阅读的市级公开课中,笔者发现仅在课堂中学生就自然地掌握、且能在特定语境中自主表达和运用该课的目标词汇和语法。课后教研组研讨分析后,大家一致认为在这节阅读课例中,由于教师适当地运用了重复和重述话语,使学生对该课语言知识的掌握和理解起到了有效的支持作用。教师话语的支持性功能是指教师通过自身话语的可理解性输入,或话语的互动调整,从而协助并支持学生完成语言表达或课堂任务的功能。这一功能不仅能弥补学生语言能力的不足,还能为学生提供认知、情感和思维等方面的支持,即起到了为学生提供交流需要的语言形式或内容、思考问题时的思维起点和降低情感焦虑的支持作用。
现从该课例不同的教学环节中,选取了部分师生互动的语料片段,对教师重复话语做分析,由此粗略地归纳出教师重复话语的功能特征。
二、概念界定
重复出现在语篇之中,是连接上下话语的手段。从其语言本身上看,重复包括形式上的重复和语义上的重复,前者包括音、词、句的重复,后者包括语言意义上的重复(李悦娥,2000)。本文语料中选取的教师重复话语,在内容上包括教师的自我重复或重述话语,也包括教师对学生话语的重复或重述;在形式上既包括全部重复的话语,也包括部分重复的话语;在时间上包括在该课时中教师的即时重复或重述话语,也包括延时重复或重述的话语;在功能上包括教师在导入、解释、指令、衔接等修饰话语中的重复和重述话语,包括互动调整话语中出现的确认核实和澄清请求的重述话语,也包括教师对学生回答的反馈话语中的重复或重述,以及对学生话语进行纠正的重铸话语。本文分析的教师重复话语主要是指为了完成教学目的,教师有意识地选用的重复或重述话语,不包括教师个性化的重复标记语(如 OK, so, next)和弥补自我错误或表达不熟悉内容时的重复话语,也不包括教师使用不当的重复话语。
三、基于阅读课例的教师重复话语片段分析
(一)课例介绍与教师重复话语分布
本课是人教版《英语》必修五第四单元Making the news的对话文本,通过一位新手记者和经验丰富的资深记者之间的谈话,引导学生了解新闻记者做采访时应具备的素质、技能和职责。该阅读课是基于教材文本语境,围绕标题设置语义主线 unforgettable suggestions (duties/skills)设计的一节语言知识学习的课例。其教学目标是:
1.学生能够学会按主题词梳理语言知识,分层次识记、领会、理解、运用以下目标语汇:cover a story, get a scoop, meanwhile, gain, acquire, colleagues(理解词); admirable, update, professional, assistant, inform(派生词); skeptical, assess, submit, have a nose for, get the facts straight, get the wrong end of the stick, miss the deadline(语境词)。
2.学生能理解目标语法句式特征,即部分倒装的语法形式和意义,并能在具体语境和语篇中初步模仿运用目标语法句式。
3.学生能够有依据地分析文本主人公Zhou Yang和Hu Xin的个性特点;能够解读标题unforgettable的内涵意义,运用目标语汇重组文本信息完成一份新闻稿件。
其教学环节如下:
Step1:导入环节。引入一幅记者图片,激活新闻记者身份的话题,呈现关于记者职责的相关词块。
Step2:输入环节。分析标题,预测文本内容,提炼出主题词Suggestions(skills/duties),将其作为学习主线,并在文本中梳理关于skills/duties的主题词块与信息,再以重组文本信息的语篇形式整体输入该课的目标主题词块,做到“分类打包”并感知理解。
Step3:内化环节。先以词块配对形式进行强化辨认识记,再在重组语篇的填空练习中进行复现记忆,并通过转换话语主体进行文本信息的转述活动,强化认知该课的主题目标词汇和语法。
Step4:输出环节。提取文本信息评价人物Zhou Yang/ Hu Xin,再讨论标题关键词unforgettable的内涵意义,并用包含有目标词汇和语法的新闻稿文体归纳总结文本主题。
Step5:布置作业。转换文体复习目标语汇(以Hu Xin身份完成一份对新手记者的演讲稿),为下一课时文本阅读的深层理解做准备(以Zhou Yang的身份设计向Hu Xin提出的问题,包括问题的内容、方式与特点),选取的教师重复话语语料在各教学环节中的分布与作用见下表。
表1 教师重复话语的分布与作用
(二)教师重复话语语料片段分析
Step1:导入
语料1:呈现中的重复
T: Good, as a good journalist, he should assist colleagues and also not miss the deadline of submitting articles. Here, “submit articles”(第一次重复)means he should deliver or offer articles before the deadline. So we can know“submit articles”(第二次重复)means“deliver or offer articles”, which is what a journalist often does during his work. Well, now read after me, “submit articles”, twice. (第三次重复。)
Ss:submit articles, submit articles
T: OK! What should a journalist remember to do before the deadline?
Ss: He should remember to submit his articles he has finished.
T: Good, we know here“submit articles”(第四次重复)means…
Ss: deliver, offer.
T: Then what else does a journalist often do?
教师在呈现了目标语submit articles后,对submit articles重复四次。第一次重复是教师借助解释旨在引发学生对submit articles词块形式的有意关注;第二次重复是用旧识词汇释义引导学生辨认识记;第三次教师示范领读词块,从语音上进行强化记忆;第四次教师以提问的方式设置语境,引导学生在语境中理解运用submit articles,达成“重复效应”,即“通过不断的重复和强化,知识信息能进入长时记忆,也指刺激重复呈现导致了加工的易化,会引起反应正确率的提高和反应时间的降低”(杨艺媛,2012)。显然,教师重复话语不仅引导了学生的注意力,而且创造了一种学习条件,使学习目标进入学生视野,即让学生观察到或意识到要学习的新知识(程晓堂,2009)。
Step2:输入
语料2:解释中的重复
T: From the skills Zhou Yang needs, we know it's unusual to be a journalist without professional knowledge. How can he be professional? (第一次重复。)
S1: learn from others.
S2: read books.
S3: get trained.
S4: get experience.
…
T: That's right. He should learn from the professional colleagues because they have been well trained. (第二次重复。)For example, a professional photographer can take photos very well. (第三次重复。)If Zhou is trained to get improved, he can be a professional one. So what's the meaning of“professional”? (第四次重复。)
Ss: training, er, trained?
T: Well, as we know, in different jobs we have different professional roles. Well, do you think I am a professional teacher? (第五次重复。)
S1: I think so.
T: Why?
S1: Because you have worked for a long time and also got lots of training or skills.
T: Thanks. Importantly, more training. So we know only after being trained Zhou can be a professional journalist in a team. Well, what does“professional”mean? (第六次重复。)
S1: get training.
S2: full of knowledge and skills.
S3 being trained.
T: OK, in short, “professional”means“trained”. Now let's read together. What suggestions about teamwork can we know from Hu Xin? …
在文本梳理的交流互动中,教师的第一次重复是通过问题“How can he be professional? ”,既引发学生的思考,又引导学生辨认识记professional;第二、三次重复是借助文本语境的professional colleagues和a professional photographer去帮助学生领会并感知其意义;第四次重复是提问学生,意在检测学生对professional的理解;教师发现学生有点困惑时,进行了第五次重复,设置生活情境a professional teacher进行意义协商,通过确认核实来检查学生的理解;第六次重复“So we know only after being trained Zhou can be a professional journalist in a team. Well, what does“professional”mean? ”,再次在语境中进行即时重复的强化记忆,标记其意义特征,使目标词汇professional在语义加工上得到了易化,帮助学生对professional从即时记忆转化为长期记忆。从分析看出,这种在意义协商中的教师重复话语有效地帮助学生加深了对目标词汇的理解。正如程晓堂(2009)指出,当教师使用丰富的语言,通过互动、交流的形式,有意识地经常重复一些关键词或习语时,学生极有可能输出这些关键词或习语。
Step3:内化
语料3:指令中的重复
T: Well, from the suggestions Hu Xin gave, Zhou Yang has learnt a lot. But it's difficult for him to remember all of them. Now let's help him to find out their meanings. OK?
Ss:…
T:Could you match the words with their meanings? (第一次重述。)
T: That is to say, match the words in Column A with their meanings in Column B. (第二次重述。)For example, “assist”means“help”. Then what about the next, “submit”?
在词块配对活动中,教师通过话语调整重述指令用语两次,教师在用建议性话语发出指令后,发现学生不是很清楚教师意图,所以教师用请求性话语委婉地进行了第一次重述,让话语指令更为清楚明确,期望有效达成指令目的;第二次重述是在学生发出行为时,再次用指令性话语进行解释,意在提示个别对指令不够清楚的学生,通过强调达到“以言行事”的目的(Austin,1962),从而控制课堂中学生的言语行为,顺畅完成语言学习活动。
语料4:衔接中的语义重复
T: What skills are needed for Zhou Yang from Hu Xin's suggestions?
S1: To be professional.
S2: He should be eager to help, er, assist his colleagues.
S3: get information.
T:get information, well, here, “get”can be replaced using another way of saying we have learnt just know.
S3: Acquire information, er, enough information.
T: Good, acquiring enough information is indeed an important skill, (第一次重复。)but how will he choose the information he acquired?
S4: He should know what information is true.
T: Wonderful, it's also another skill needed for a journalist, (第二次重复。)but how can he know, just know what is true?
S4: Um, judge, or, assess what is true.
T: You mean a journalist must be able to assess what is true.
S4: Right!
T: Well, assessing what is true is really a vital skill. (第三次重复。) Then what other skills are needed? (第四次重复。)
S5:...
T:Besides these skills, Zhou Yang also learnt more skills. Now let's fill in the blanks to find out all he learnt.
教师把主题词skills作为语义主线,并将skills作为概括词重复四次,以skills为该话轮中思维衔接的主题线索步步追问,推进师生交流的互动话步,不断扩展该主题线索;通过提取文本中的主题词块进行关于skills主题的多次重述,诱导学生补充关于skills的具体内容,并借助文本信息不断扩展丰富skills needed for a journalist,逐步推进话语主题,保证了课堂互动中师生交流的信息是彼此有关联的,即师生围绕一个话题(skills)进行交流(程晓堂,2009),最后为后续活动中的语篇填空搭好语言的支架,做好丰富的语言储备。
语料5:衔接中的主题重复
T: If you were Zhou, what could be your duties?
Ss: (Silence)
T: Well, being a journalist, what would you do first as your duties?
S1: I would work as an assistant first.
T: Being an assistant(重复), how can you know what is a new story?
S1: Keep curious and doubtful, um, skeptical in order to have a good nose for stories.
T: Good idea. After having a good nose(重复)for stories, then when can you really go out for a story?
S1: Uh, until I become more experienced and professional.
T: Yes, if you are professional enough, or if you have enough experience, what can you do to cover a story? (重复。)
S1: Get information.
T: Then how can you get information, that is, how to acquire enough information? (重复。)
S1: I know, I'll ask many questions I prepared.
T: A good trick. By asking questions to acquire more information you need. Yes, after you acquire information, how can you assess whether is true or not? (重述。)
S1: Yes, this is the most difficult. I should do research to tell myself what I missed.
T: I see. You will use research to inform yourself of the missing facts. Am I right? (重述。)
S1: Yes, inform myself of the missing things, facts. Yes.
在以Zhou Yang的身份转述文本信息活动的语料中,教师提出问题后,学生没有回答,此时教师进行了提问调整,把问题细化分解,进行了六次重复或重述学生话语信息内容,旨在引发下一话轮,逐步推进互动话题,来一步步完成what could be your duties的问题,第六次重述学生话语“You will use research to inform yourself of the missing facts. Am I right? ”,目的是达成对学生话语信息的确认核实。
语料6:衔接中的纠错重复
T: As we have learnt, Hu Xin stressed some qualities a journalist needs. What qualities did he stress to Zhou Yang?
S1: He should have a good nose for a new story.
T: Besides that, what else does Zhou need?
S2: He needs not only curious, but also skeptical.
T: Sorry, I'm not clear about your ideas. (澄清请求。)He needs curious or he needs to be curious? (重述。)
S2: to be curious.
T: You think that not only does he need to be curious, but also skeptical. Is that so? (重新措辞。)
S2: Yeah. He needs not only to be curious, but also skeptical.
T: I've got it.You mean that not only does he need to be curious, but also skeptical. (重述,确认核实。)OK, this is indeed important for a journalist. Can you tell us this quality Hu Xin stressed again? (指令建议。)
S2: Yes, not only does he need to be curious, but also skeptical.
T:What other qualities did he stress?
S3: Zhou will acquire enough information needed only if he asks many questions.
T: Wonderful! As we know, only if you try harder will you get better. (搭建支架。)So how can we retell the sentence?
S3: Got it! Only if Zhou asks many questions he will acquire enough information.
T: Yes, he will? Or will he?
S3: Oh, I forgot it. Only if Zhou asks many questions will he acquire enough information.
T: Great!
在以Hu Xin身份强调新记者的品质和职责的语料中,学生答语出现形式上的错误,教师没有直接纠错,而是先对学生发起澄清请求,期望学生重新表述自己话语,并用声调重读重述了学生话语内容,这种模糊的反馈也是“反语”的一种。教师有意识地引起学生的注意,而且委婉地提示了学生的错误表达needs curious和he will,并特意提醒学生注意倒装句式;在学生意识到并改正了语言形式上的错误,而没能关注到倒装句式的运用时,教师对学生话语进行重新措辞,即重述学生话语信息进行确认核实;或在不干扰意义交流的前提下,搭建语言支架:Only if you try harder will you get better.这样既强化与认可了学生关于话题表达的信息,又在意义协商中隐形地强调了目标语法,并发出指令建议学生重述自己的话语,引导学生自我纠正并尝试运用半倒装的句式。但从语料看出,教师只对本课目标语言进行了有效纠错,意在加强学生对目标语言规则的内化。而对互动交流中不影响信息表达的口误大多持模糊态度,或采用声调重复错处要求学生做出回应(echo)即可,保证学生语言表达的积极性。
Step4:输出
语料7:反馈中的意义重复
T: Depending on these unforgettable suggestions from Hu Xin, what do you think of him? And what is your evidence from the context?
S1: I think he's very serious and strict because he asked Zhou to work as an assistant journalist first instead of going out for a story.
T: I agree. Being serious and strict with Zhou Yang, I can say he's very responsible for new journalists. Then can you find more evidence to show he is very responsible?
...
语料8:反馈中的意义重复
S2: I think he's very encouraging by saying“that's admirable”and he must be patient because he has answered many questions from Zhou Yang.
T: Wonderful! Encouraging and answering Zhou Yang, the new journalist, Hu is sure to be patient in helping new journalists.
S3: Hu Xin has his own dos and don'ts, and especially he informed Zhou to use recorders, and listened carefully while taking notes, so I can judge he's skilled, careful, eh, and even skeptical.
T: Terrific! He's so skilled, careful and even skeptical that I think he must be very professional and have experienced a lot. So we can use a word to describe his rich experience.
S3: I see, as a boss in the office he's even experienced.
T: Wonderful, then what more context evidence can you find to prove he's experienced?
...
在人物评价活动的语料7中,教师重复或重述学生话语表示同意学生观点,旨在强化或为学生提供额外语言输入,不仅连接了师生互动交流的上下语域,也是对学生回答的一种积极反馈;并在学生观点的基础上继续丰富了话语信息responsible,推进下一话步。语料8中教师重复或重述学生话语表示对学生答语的肯定,并在学生答语的基础上补充词汇professional,借以总结该话轮的交流信息,且有意识地提示了目标词汇以外的概括词汇experience,引发学生进一步组织并整合自己的话语思维,引出experienced。教师这样的重复不仅为学生提供了情感上的支持,降低了课堂交流中的焦虑感,同时也继续更进一步地推进话题,为学生提供了话语思维上的支持,并引发了下一话轮。
语料9:反馈中的纠错重复
Ss: In fact, a journalist may be accused getting the wrong end of the stick.
T: Yes, if a journalist gets the wrong end of the stick, someone may accuse him of his mistakes. As we know, accuse sb of doing sth, or sb be accused of doing sth. Well, what may happen to a journalist if he gets the wrong end of the trick?
Ss: A journalist may be accused of getting the wrong end of the stick.
在总结文本主题的填空活动中,针对学生话语中语法上的错误,教师没有直接纠错,而是在互动中先保证意义交流的前提下,借助声调的变换和加重语气重新措辞,重述了学生的话语信息,又进行自我重复强调了语言形式的正确表达,迫使学生对自己输出的话语与目标语之间的差异予以注意,诱使学生主动领悟与感知正确的语言表达形式,积极提取陈述性知识,推动向程序性知识的转化。并且,教师通过问题情境“What may happen to a journalist if he gets the wrong end of the trick? ”,引发学生在意义情境中主动自我纠正,从而修正自己的错误,还保证了互动情境中的意义交流。从学生及时调整的话语看出,显然教师的重复话语达到了隐形纠错的目的,并引导学生学会利用已掌握的语言知识对自己的语言表达进行监察和纠错。这样的纠错性反馈对学生话语产出和语言能力的提高具有支持作用(康艳、程晓堂,2011)。
语料10:总结中的主题重复
T: Why is Zhou Yang's first day at work"unforgettable"?
S1: This is his first day at work.
S2: This is a popular English Newspaper.
S3: Because he has learnt a lot on how to be a good journalist.
S4: He asked an unforgettable question"can I go out on a story immediately".
T: Yes, your answers are all right. But besides this, depending on their discussion, what else also makes Zhou Yang think of his first day"unforgettable"?
Ss: (silence)
T: Well, in our life what often makes us unforgettable?
S4: Er, unforgettable people, unforgettable things.
T: Right. Actually, it was what Zhou Yang met at the first day at work that makes him unforgettable?
S4: Oh, I see. He met an unforgettable journalist, his new boss giving him lots of useful suggestions.
S5: And he got some useful suggestions from Hu Xin, which are also unforgettable.
T:Excellent! From the unforgettable suggestions, Zhou Yang has known his duties as a journalist. So we can say Zhou Yang got an unforgettable training of being a good journalist. Maybe that's why Zhou Yang thinks of his first day unforgettable. Do you think that's enough? What else?
Ss: (Thinking)
T: I still remember Hu Xin also told Zhou Yang something different.
S6: Oh, I remember it. He learnt an unforgettable thing, or an incident happening to Hu Xin a long time ago.
T: Yeah, it's also an unforgettable experience. Well done. Till now, we can understand why he considers his first day unforgettable. Then what makes Zhou Yang unforgettable?
Ss: Many unforgettable suggestions /an unforgettable training /an unforgettable boss /unforgettable experience...
T: To sum up, what makes Zhou Yang unforgettable is an unforgettable question he asked, an unforgettable training he got and even an unfor gettable experience he learnt. But I have a question how the writer expressed this kind of unforgettable feeling at the beginning of the discussion. Can you find the sentence?
Ss: Yes, “Never will Zhou Yang forget his first assignment at the office of a popular English Newspaper”.
T: Wonderful. In general, we say Zhou Yang will never forget his first assignment. But here using inversion expresses emphasizing in order to stress his unforgettable experiences. We know Hu Xin also stressed some duties of being a journalist. Well, let' s find more sentences using inversion and analyze them.
该语料中教师抛出问题,以关键词unforgettable作为话题语义主线,引导学生归纳文本的主题信息,总结了文本标题中unforgettable的内涵意义,顺势引导学生思考作者表达主题的特殊语法形式,即用半倒装句式表达强调的意义,并引发学生对其他倒装句式的观察与思考,从而从意义上理解并归纳目标语法的用法。也正如李悦娥(2000)认为,从心理学角度来分析,重复表明说话人的强烈感情,表示说话人正完成组织话语中的调节作用,可以引起对方注意,起着对上下所讲话语的记忆分享作用,也起着交际能力知识的分享作用,是对讲话人所讲话语的接应作用。
四、结论
从收集的语料发现,教师自我重复话语多用在呈现、示范等语言输入环节;教师自我重述多用在指令、讲解、解释等输入环节;教师重复或重述学生话语多用在师生互动的内化与输出环节中,此时教师多重述学生话语进行意义协商、提问调整、互动交流或反馈总结。
综合分析语料片段看出,教师重复或重述的话语主要是通过提供认知、情感或思维上的支架,对学生语言学习的支持作用有以下三个方面。
(一)输入支持
即在课堂互动中,教师重复话语是通过教师的示范和标记关键特征(如语料1,2),总结与补充主题内容(如语料7,8,10)和控制言语行为(如语料3),作为一种被学生注意与察觉的对目标语言的强化输入手段(杨延从、王碧文,2013),为学生多次接触目标语言提供了大量的机会,能够帮助学生把注意到的目标语言信息与自己已有的语言经验联系起来,并引导学生关注目标语言的形式、意义和语用的结合;也是一种被理解的语言输入,因为这种基于学生水平的适度、适时的教师重复话语输入,有助于学生把注意到的语言输入信息转变为被理解的语言输入,从而内化为显性的知识吸收和储存,从认知和情感方面,对学生语言学习起到了积极的支持作用。这时的教师重复或重述话语在语言学习过程中起着强调目标语言、标注语言关键特征、强化辨认记忆、示范模仿、同意或认可或补充学生话语和总结主题的话语作用。
(二)衔接支持
教师通过重复或重述话语的恰当、得体使用,能使课堂教学的环节和过程衔接自然且连贯,并且保持了师生交流话题的意义关联。在师生互动中,作为一种话语关联的思维衔接支持,教师通过重复主题词、重述自我或学生话语、重新措辞进行意义协商,达成师生话语意义的互动交流(如语料4,5,6,7,8,10),引发学生对目标词汇和语法的主动积累与积极表达运用,自然地保证了信息传递的交际目的,也保证了信息交流的连贯,实现了互动话题的自然转换,从而有效地开启了下一轮的互动交流。这时教师的重复或重述话语起着协调、合作、礼貌、澄清、证实、确认、语言检验、推进下一话题和重新启动话轮的语用策略作用。
(三)纠错支持
教师有意重复或重述学生话语内容,对学生话语的不恰当表达形式或不合理思考进行重复或重铸(recast)(如语料6,9),通过语调变换和加重语气引起学生的注意,看似是教师在意义交流上的自然回应,实则是在强调语言的正确形式、或合适的话语表达等,诱使学生意识到自己的错误,自主修正错误或接纳(uptake)正确的语言形式,实现了规范学生话语、隐形纠正学生错误的目的。在互动过程中,教师的这种重复与重述话语是解决学生理解障碍的语用手段,即教师为了给学生提供思考时间进而调动语言资源使对话持续下去的话语策略;也是帮助学生填补思维表达空缺和词汇卡壳的话语手段。反馈中教师重复或重述学生话语,是对发出回应的学生起着表示认可与肯定的作用,也是提示其他学生倾听与关注的话语方式。
综合上述对语料片段的分析,英语教师重复话语在不同教师话语类型中的功能特征归类见下表。
表2 英语教师重复/重述话语的功能特征
续表
五、教师重复话语应关注的要点
这节基于学习语言知识的阅读课例,课堂师生互动话语都是在不脱离文本主题的语言情境中,教师围绕该文本主题,通过教学活动有意识、有目的、有选择地多次重复和重述目标词汇、语法、文本主题,增加了学生多次接触和运用目标词汇的机会。目标词汇在学生熟悉的语境中有规律地循环出现,有利于学生结合某一主题学习、巩固和使用词汇(程晓堂、孙晓慧,2011)。有效的教师重复话语应该关注以下三个要点。
(一)关注文本主题
教师重复话语是在关注文本主题的基础上,借助重复话语保证主题的关联性,从而创设最好的课堂话语语境。何自然(2003)分析关联理论认为,最佳的关联性来自最好的语境效果(转引自葛雨军,2014)。教师有目的地通过重复或重述话语多次复现目标语言,不仅丰富话题语言信息和表达形式,也使得目标语言在同一主题语境下的关联更为清楚;而且能创设更多接触目标语言的机会,用以衔接和弥补课堂活动间话语思维的断裂(张金秀,2016),引导学生根据教师话语创设的与主题有关联的语境,能容易地建立语言形式与意义之间的联系,也能更容易地理解与运用目标语言。正如葛雨军(2014)分析,人们对话语和语境的假设、认同越成功,话语内在的关联就越清楚,无须付出太多努力就可取得好的语境效果,从而准确地理解话语,使交际活动顺利开展。
(二)关注目标语言
教师重复或重述话语的目的是为了帮助学生在关联的语境中学习目标语言。Smith(1988)提出输入强化理论,并将其定义为意识提升(Consciousness-raising),即教师有意识地凸显第二语言的某些形式特征,以此吸引学习者主动去发现第二语言本身的特征,然后逐步理解这些规律和特征,从而促进语言的习得。输入强化旨在引导学习者在理解意义的过程中注意目标词汇和语法,并进行意义和形式的匹配,最终习得语言(转引自杨延从、王碧文,2013)。教师有意识地在课堂话语中多次重复或重述来复现目标语言,增加目标语言出现的频率,这是一种渗透输入流的策略(Wynne,2005。转引自杨延从、王碧文,2013),即把含有大量目标语言的互动话语自然融入真实的信息交流中,让学生有更多机会关注到目标语言的结构特征,目的是通过提供话语支持帮助学生在输入、内化和输出中感知和理解语言形式、意义以及语用的关联,让目标语言的形式、意义和语用功能融合,做到有意义的交流。
(三)关注话语意义
语言教学首先要关注语言的意义,在互动中关注意义的同时关注语言的形式,有利于学生准确理解语言的意义和语言使用的语境,还可以为学生提供语言实践的机会(程晓堂,2009)。语言的获得是建立在有意义的理解基础上的,学生只有吸收可理解的输入信息才能获得语言知识。作为课堂话语的教师重复话语必然是要以意义表达为基础,有选择地复现适合学生现有水平的目标语言形式,并能够为学生易于理解,即对学生可理解的输入应是i+1,其中i表示学生的现有水平,1表示比学生现有水平略高一些,使学生能有机会把注意力集中于对目标语言的意义和语用的理解和加工上,帮助学生易于学习目标语言。此外,教师重复话语必须要符合话语的逻辑性和连贯性特征,即要有明确目的,而且该目的与教学目的是吻合的;要符合学生认知规律,有助于学生理解知识或进行实际操作;话语要清楚;前后话语要有逻辑关联(程晓堂,2008);还要符合生活常识和基本的逻辑思维(张金秀,2016)。这样教师选用的重复或重述话语就能保证在不中断学生理解、互动、交流意义的进程下,增大目标语言被注意和有意义学习的机会。
六、结语
本文所选语料来自基于语言知识学习的阅读课例,所以对教师重复话语的分析有其特殊性与局限性。但重复话语是课堂话语结构中的重要组成部分,而教师重复话语又是一种重要的教师话语策略,只要从学生语言学习和话语意义协商的角度出发,做到适度、适时、适量地有效选用,就能引导学生参与到共同建构知识的语言学习过程中。
综合分析语料和课堂效果发现,这节课例中教师重复话语的有效性还得益于两个因素:一是互动交流中师生共同遵守课堂话轮分配的规则;二是学生已经具备有基于语境理解教师话语的能力,这也是教师话语有利于学生语言学习和互动交流的必要因素。
参考文献
[1]Austin, J. L. How to do things with words[M]. London: Oxford University Press,1962.
[2]Chaudron, C. Second Language Classrooms: Research on Teaching and Learning [M]. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,1988.
[3]程晓堂.英语教师课堂话语的逻辑性与连贯性[J].基础英语教育, 2008(6):3-9.
[4]程晓堂.英语教师课堂话语分析[M].上海:上海外语教育出版社,2009.
[5]程晓堂,孙晓慧.英语教材分析与设计[M].北京:高等教育出版社,2011.
[6]高淼,林敦来.初中学生使用口语交际策略的调查研究[J].中小学外语教学(中学篇),2016(6):37-40.
[7]葛雨军.基于教师话语分析的课堂提问有效性研究[J].中小学外语教学(中学篇),2014(9):40-44.
[8]蒋敏红.英语优质的衔接话语分析[J].湖北广播电视大学学报, 2008(2):150-151.
[9]康艳、程晓堂.外语教师课堂话语功能新框架[J].外语教学理论与实践,2011(3):7-14.
[10]李悦娥.话语中重复结构探析[J].外语与外语教学,2000 (11):5-7.
[11]李艳.话语重复的关联理论分析[J].湖北理工学院学报(人文社会科学版),2010,27(6):48-50.
[12]杨延从,王碧文.基于文学作品的语言输入强化在高中英语语法教学中的运用[J].中小学外语教学(中学篇),2013(10):6-11.
[13]杨艺媛.小学英语教师课堂反馈语中重复的心理探析[J].基础英语教育,2012(3):38-42.
[14]张金秀.英语学科思维品质培养面临的困境与对策[J].中小学外语教学(中学篇),2016(7):6-11.