3.3　考研真题与典型题详解

I. Fill in the blanks.

1．Arbitrariness of language makes it potentially creative, and ______ of language makes learning a language laborious. For learners of a foreign language, it is this feature of language that is more worth noticing than its arbitrariness. （大连外国语学院2008研）

【答案】conventionality

【解析】语言学习过程中学习者必须识记一些固定搭配或约定俗成的习语、谚语等，因此使得语言学习比较费力。

2．In Saussure’s view, the relationship between signifier(sound image) and signified (concept) is______. （北二外2005研）

【答案】arbitrary

【解析】索绪尔认为符号的形式或声音与其意义之间没有逻辑联系，所以两者之间的关系是任意的。

3．Human language is arbitrary. This refers to the fact that there is no logical or intrinsic connection between a particular sound and the _______it is associated with. （人大2007研）

【答案】meaning

【解析】人类的语言具有任意性。也就是说声音与其意义之间没有逻辑上的或者内在的联系。

4．The features that define our human languages can be called _____ features. （北二外2006研）

【答案】design

【解析】人类语言区别于其他动物交流系统的特点是语言的区别特征，是人类语言特有的特征。

5．Human languages enable their users to symbolize objects, events and concepts which are not present (in time and space) at the moment of communication. This quality is labeled as______. （北二外2007研）

【答案】displacement

【解析】移位性是指人类语言可以让使用者在交际时用语言符号代表时间和空间上不可及的物体、事件和观点。

6．By ______ is meant the property of having two levels of structures, such that units of the primary level are composed of elements of the secondary level and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization. （北二外2005研）

【答案】duality

【解析】双重性是指拥有两层结构的这种属性，底层结构是上层结构的组成成分，每层都有自身的组合规则。

7．______ function is realized by mood and modality. （中山大学2006研）

【答案】Interpersonal

【解析】人际功能通过语气情态实现。

8．When language is used for establishing an atmosphere or maintaining social contact rather than exchanging information or ideas, its function is _______function. （北二外2000研）

【答案】interpersonal

【解析】人际功能是语言最重要的社会功能，人们由此建立和维持他们的身份和社会地位。

9．Some sentences do not describe things. They cannot be said to be true or false. The utterance of these sentences is or is a part of the doing of an action. They are called ______. （大连外国语学院2008研）

【答案】Performative

【解析】施为句是用来做事的，既不陈述事实，也不描述情况，且不能验证其真假。

10．When language is used for establishing an atmosphere or maintaining social contact rather than exchanging information or ideas, its function is______ function. （北二外2005研）

【答案】phatic

【解析】寒暄功能是指那些有助于确立和维持人际关系的表达，例如俚语、玩笑、行话、礼节性的问候、社会方言或地域方言的转用等。

11．When language is used for establishing an atmosphere or maintaining social contact rather than exchanging information or ideas, its function is ______ function. （北二外2010）

【答案】interpersonal

【解析】语言的人际功能是指人们由此建立和维持他们的身份和社会地位。

12．The idea of _______ was first developed by Roman Jacobson (l896-1982) in the 1940s as a means of working out a set of phonological contrasts or oppositions to capture particular aspects of language sounds. （中山大学2011年研）

【答案】distinctive features

【解析】区别性特征第一次由Roman Jacobson提出。

II. Multiple Choice

1．Which of the following is NOT a frequently discussed design feature? （大连外国语学院2008研）

A. Arbitrariness

B. Convention

C. Duality

【答案】B

【解析】语言的区别性特征主要是指任意性、双重性、创造性和移位性。

2．Which of the following words is entirely arbitrary? （西安交通大学2008研）

A. tree

B. crash

C. typewrite

D. bang

【答案】A

【解析】crash是一个缩略语，typewriter是复合词，bang是拟声词，所以只有tree的形成比较任意。

3．By ______ we mean language is resourceful because of its duality and recursiveness. （西安外国语学院2006研）

A. arbitrariness

B. duality

C. creativity

D. displacement

【答案】C

【解析】创造性指语言的能产性，它能够使人造出和理解无穷的长句，其中很多句子是以前从未听过的。

4．When language is used to get information from others, it serves an______ function. （北二外2003研）

A. informative

B. directive

C. interrogative

【答案】C

【解析】语言用来陈述某件事情，提供信息或用作推理。信息功能是语言最重要的功能，一般出现在陈述句中。

5．The functions of language do NOT include_______. （大连外国语学院2008研）

A. informative function

B. interpersonal function

C. metacognitive function

【答案】C

【解析】语言的主要功能包括信息功能，人际功能，施为功能，感情功能，寒暄功能，元语言功能和娱乐功能。

6．______ refers to the system of a language, i.e. the arrangement of sounds and words which speakers of a language have a shared knowledge of. （西安外国语学院2006研）

A. Langue

B. Competence

C. Communicative competence

D. Linguistic potential

【答案】A

【解析】语言指一个言语社团所有成员共享的抽象语言系统。

7．The actual production and comprehension of the speech by speakers of a language is called _______. （北二外2010研）

A. grammar rules

B. competence

C. performance

D. language device

【答案】C

【解析】语言应用指在语言交际中关于语言规则知识的实际使用。

8．Which of the following statements is true of Jacobson’s framework of language functions?

A. The referential function is to indulge in language for its own sake.

B. The emotive function is to convey message and information.

C. The conative function is to clear up intentions, words and meanings.

D. The phatic function is to establish communion with others.

【答案】D

【解析】所指功能是指用语言来传达信息，情感功能是表达一种态度，感受；意动功能是通过命令和恳求说服影响他人。

9．“An refer to Confucius even though he was dead 2,000 years ago.” This shows that language has the design feature of ______.

A. arbitrariness

B. creativity

C. duality

D. displacement

【答案】D

【解析】移位性是指人类语言可以让使用者在交际时用语言符号代表时间和空间上不可及的物体、事件和观点。

10．The function of the sentence“Water boils at 100 degree Centigrade”is______.

A. interrogative

B. directive

C. informative

D. performative

【答案】C

【解析】语言的信息功能是指语言用来陈述某件事情，提供信息或用作推理。

III. True or False

1．It is conclusive that Chinese is regarded as the primeval language. （清华2000研）

【答案】F

【解析】汉语是经过长期发展而来的高级语言而不是一种原始语言。

2．Wherever humans exist, language exists. （对外经贸2006研）

【答案】F

【解析】语言是在人类出现相当一段时间之后才出现的。

3．According to Saussure, the relation between the signified and the signifier is arbitrary. （大连外国语学院2008研）

【答案】T

【解析】索绪尔认为语言符号的形式与意义没有天然联系，两者之间的联系是任意的。

4．The features that define our human languages can be called DESIGN FEATURES. （大连外国语学院2008研）

【答案】T

【解析】能定义人类语言的特点就是语言的基本特征。

5．Onomatopoeic words can show the arbitrary nature of language. （清华2000研）

【答案】F

【解析】拟声词表明语言并不是完全任意的，一些拟声词的发音与其意义还是有一定联系的。

6．When language is used to get information from others, it serves an informative function. （清华2001研）

【答案】F

【解析】语言是用来陈述某件事情，提供信息或用作推理，信息功能是语言最重要的功能，一般出现在陈述句中。

7．Duality is one of the characteristics of human language. It refers to the fact that language has two levels of structures: the system of sounds and the system of meanings.

【答案】T

【解析】二重性是人类语言的一个基本特征，因为语言有两层结构：声音系统和意义系统。

IV. Explain the following terms.

1．Displacement （南开大学2010研；清华2001研）

【答案】Displacement: Language can be used to refer to what is present, what is absent, what happens at present, what happened in the past, what will happen in the future or what happens in a far-away place. This property of language enables language users to overcome the barriers caused by time and place. For example, we can talk about Sapir, who is already dead; we can even talk about next week, which is in the future.

2．Duality （北二外2010研；南开大学2010研；西安交通大学2008研）

【答案】Duality: refers to the fact that in all languages so far investigated there are two levels of structure or patterning. At the first, higher level, language is analyzed in terms of combinations of meaningful units (such as morphemes, words etc.); at the second, lower level, it is seen as a sequence of segments which lack any meaning in themselves, but which combine to form units of meaning. For example, a syllable is the smallest unit that is normally spoken by itself, and scores of syllables become the carriers of hundreds of meaningful segments of words that are called morphemes.

3．Arbitrariness （四川大学2006研）

【答案】Arbitrariness: Arbitrariness refers to the fact that the forms of linguistic signs have no natural relationship to their meaning. Arbitrariness of language makes it potentially creative, a conventionality of language makes a language be passed from generation to generation. For example, it is unable to explain why a book is called a /buk/ and a pen a /pen/.

4．Phatic function(communion) （武汉大学2005研）

【答案】Phatic function: The phatic function of language refers to the use of the language which often consists of small, seemingly meaningless expression for setting up a certain atmosphere or maintaining social contacts rather than for exchanging information or ideas. For example, greetings, farewells, and comments on the weather in English could serve this function.

V. Short answer questions

1．How well, in your opinion, does the word “communication” represent the function of human language? （北二外2008研）

【答案】We use language for an almost infinite number of purposes, from writing letters to gossiping with our friends, making speeches and talking to ourselves in the mirror. But the primary function of language is to transmit information and to convey commands, feelings and emotions. That is, language is a tool of communication. The term “communication” can be used to cover much of the function of language. This function can be further divided into more specific functions, such as phatic function/communion, directive function, informative function, interrogative function, expressive function, evocative function, performative function etc.

2．What makes language unique to human beings? （北航2010研）

【答案】The design features of language which refer to the defining properties of human language tell the difference between human language and any system of animal communication.

Arbitrariness is a core feature of language, which means that there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds. Duality, which means the property of having two levels of structures, such that units of the primary level are composed of elements of the secondary level and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization. Creativity means language is resourceful because of its duality and its recursiveness. Because of duality the speaker is able to combine the basic linguistic unites to form an infinite set of sentences, most of which are never heard before. Displacement means that language can be used to refer to things which are present or not present, real or imagined matters, in the past, present, or future, or in far-away places. So all these features make language unique to human beings.

3．Why do people take duality as one of the important design features of human language? Can you tell us what language will be if it has no such design feature? （南开大学2004研）

【答案】Duality makes our language productive. A large number of different units can be formed out of a small number of elements—for instance, tens of thousands of words out of a small set of sounds. And out of the huge number of words, there can be astronomical number of possible sentences and phrases, which in turn can combine to form unlimited number of texts. Most animal communication systems do not have this design feature of human language.

If language had no such design feature, then it would be like animal communicational system which consists of only a number of basic sounds and this would be highly limited. Then we would not be able to produce a very large number of sound combinations (e.g. words), which are distinct in meaning. In other words, the number of messages one can send would be restricted to the number of basic sounds.

4．Explain the characteristic of arbitrariness. What are the relationships between arbitrariness & onomatopoeic words and arbitrariness convention?

【答案】Arbitrariness refers to the fact that the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaning. Onomatopoeic words are the words that sound like the sounds they describe. Only when people know the meaning can they infer that the linguistic sign is appropriate for the exact sound. Arbitrariness of language makes it potentially creative, and conventionality of language makes a language be passed from generation to generation.

VI. Essay questions

1．Examine the following two statements about language，and discuss the similarities and differences between them. Do you agree with the two statements? Explain your answer.

(1) Sapir (1921: Language): “Language is a purely human and non-instinctive method of communicating ideas，emotions and desires by means of voluntarily produced symbols.”(p. 8).

(2) Bloch and Trager (1942: Outline of Linguistic Analysis): “A language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols by means of which a social group co-operates.”(p. 5). （北外2005研）

【答案】Similarities:

(1) Both definitions stick to the fact that language is primarily a matter of speech because the primary medium of language is sound. Sapir illustrates this idea by implying that the produced symbols are auditory and Bloch and Trager by explicitly using the word “vocal”.

(2) Both definitions allude to the fact that the association between the words and the things that they denoted is rarely inherent, Sapir by using the word “symbols” and Bloch and Trager by placing emphasis on “arbitrary” and “symbols”.

Differences:

(1) Sapir’s definition emphasizes that language relates to communication between human beings. It is very different from the communication systems of other creatures, such as bird songs and bee dances. Bloch and Trager do not clearly indicate this property, only saying that it is possessed by a social group.

(2) Sapir also considers that language is “non-instinctive” and “voluntarily produced”. Thus for him language does not include such instinctive forms of communication as smiling and cries of pain, etc. However, Bloch and Trager’s definition does not include this feature.

(3) The element “system” in Bloch and Trager’s definition reflects the fact that language provides us with the framework for generating appropriate utterances rather than providing us with an infinite store of ready-made utterances.

(4) The function of language is indicated differently in two definitions. Sapir sees language as for communicating ideas, emotions and desires, while Bloch and Trager consider it for a social group’s co-operation. Sapir’s definition proposes “communication” as the principal function of language and specifies what is communicated; Bloch and Trager only vaguely point out that language can be used for co-operation.

Each of the two definitions has its own special emphasis, and it is not totally free from limitations. We think the two definitions grasp some defining properties of language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication, for example, “vocal”, “arbitrary”, “symbol”, “purely human”, “a system”. But either has some limitation. As for Sapir’s definition, whether one considers language to be instinctive or not is an issue. Language is instinctive in so far as we are all born with a predisposition to speak, we all acquire a language without tuition and when we speak we do not consciously convert our thoughts into speech. Language is, however, non-instinctive in that we can choose what to say or whether to say anything at all. Both the definition’s description of language’s function is not precise. Sapir’s definition confines language only to communicating ideas, emotions and desires, and Bloch and Trager’s definition does not point it out at all.

2．Shakespeare has Juliet say：

What’s in a name? That which we call a rose.

By any other name would smell as sweet.

What do the above lines say to you about the relationship between the form (sounds) and meaning (concept) of a word in spoken language? Explain with positive evidence as well as  exceptions from the English language. （北外2004研）

【答案】The lines said above show that the relationship between the form (sounds) and meaning (concept) of a word in spoken language is arbitrary in nature. That means there is no logical connection between forms (sounds) and meaning (concept). Different sounds are used to refer to the same object in different languages.

Sounds are just symbols; they are associated with objects, actions, ideas, etc. by convention. In this example, the rose can be called by many names in different languages but its smell never changes. Another example, different languages have different forms for referring to “dog” in English, such as Chinese “狗(gou)” , French “chien (n.m.)”. While language is arbitrary by nature, there are some exceptions as well. The best examples in English are the onomatopoetic words and compound words. For example, some onomatopoetic words “rumble”, “crash”, “crackle” “bang” are uttered like the sounds they describe, thus seem to have a natural basis. Besides, some compound words are also not entirely arbitrary. For example while “photo” and “copy” are both arbitrary, the compound word “photocopy” is not entirely arbitrary, thus seem to be motivated. Anyhow, non-arbitrary words make up only a small percentage of the vocabulary of a language.

3．Make comments upon the relationship between arbitrariness, convention, and motivation. （四川大学2006研）

【答案】Arbitrariness of language makes it potentially creative; a conventionality of language makes a language be passed from generation to generation, and makes learning a language laborious. The link between a linguistic sign and its meaning is a matter of convention.

The terms motivation and constraint describe the extent to which the signified determines the signifier. The form of the signifier of a generalized car or a traffic sign is determined by the convention that is accepted by the users of the code.

Motivated signs are iconic signs; they are characterized by a natural relation between signifier and signified. A portrait or a photograph is iconic, in that the signifier represents the appearance of the signified. The faithfulness or the accuracy of the representation—the degree to which the signified is re-presented in the signifier—is an inverse measure of how conventionalized it is. It is important to recognize that (i) in signs of high motivation, the signified is the determining influence, and (ii) in signs of low motivation, convention determines the form of the signifier. Therefore, convention plays a key role in our understanding of any sign. Convention serves as the social dimension of signs. We may not understand the unmotivated verbal sign for car the French use, but we understand the road signs in France in so far as they are iconic.

4．How do you compare the traffic light system with a human linguistic system?

【答案】Both the traffic light system and human linguistic system can symbolize some information in communication whereas the linguistic system is more complicated. However, the linguistic system has several distinctive features that no other systems have, including the traffic light system.

(1)Language is arbitrary which means that there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds. But in traffic light system, there are direct logical connections between the light signals and their meanings.

(2)Language is hierarchical, that’s to say linguistic system has two levels of structures, such that units of the primary level are composed of elements of the secondary level and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization. However, the traffic light system has no hierarchical system and the structure is composed by a single level.

(3)Language is creative. By creativity we mean language is resourceful because of its duality and its excursiveness. Because of duality, speaker is able to combine the basic linguistic units to form an infinite set of sentences, most of which are never before produced or heard. But there is no recursive nature in traffic light system which means that it can not produce new meaning.