三 美国、欧盟的北非安全政策的失灵
前文已就政策失灵的内涵和判定标准给予了翔实的说明,这里不做赘述。概括而言,所谓“政策失灵”即指实施某项政策难以“得偿所愿”,且若不做改进将给主要政治目标的实现设障。[108]一般情况下,政治目标及政策支持与反对者数量比是判断是否失灵的主要标准,实施效果越偏离目标或比例数值越小,失灵越显著。[109]据此,若欲证明美欧的北非安全政策失灵,须先明确政策目标所在,随后才可谈及实施效果同目标间差距。
即便通过对美国、欧盟的北非安全政策系统梳理可知二者在内容上迥然不同,各有侧重,但就目标而言则具有“一体两面”之共性。“利己”一面为重。旨在确保本国公民和财产免于受损并从中获得诸如能源供应充足、贸易额增加、确保地区权势与国际地位等“安全红利”。“利他”一面并非属意,但毕竟一个安定有序、经济平稳、认同民主的北非同样符合美欧的利益,故而协助五国缓解安全威胁、维持政治秩序稳定构成了政策目标的另一侧面。
从现实成效看,无论北非五国的安全状况演变还是美欧自身的安全利益护持均未如期达到目标,具体表现为以下两方面。
第一,美、欧政策无助于北非国家安全状况的根本改善。国内冲突一波未平一波又起,难民过境和安置问题尚未得到解决,以IS为代表的恐怖势力虽局部遭受重创,但东山再起的土壤还在。进入2015年后埃及革命与利比亚内战虽然有所平息,不过若无美欧插手,两国危局或许不会恶化至此。与此同时,比较2010年和2015年的“易卜拉欣非洲国家治理指数”可知:五国综合评估排名未见改善,突尼斯、摩洛哥、阿尔及利亚基本持平略有下降,埃及从第10名降至第24名,利比亚则从第23名进入倒数名单。反映综合治理情况的“参与及人权”、“安全与法制”、“可持续的经济机会”及“人类发展”四项指标中,除“安全与法制”分数略有提升外,其他三项不同程度走低。[110]若具体到个人安全、国家安全状况等评分,摩洛哥、阿尔及利亚基本原地踏步,埃及与利比亚则明显退步。[111]从阿拉伯民众对革命和地区安全局势的直观感受来看,2015年59%的受访者持负面看法,称革命诱发人员大量伤亡、国家制度和主权责任时时面临崩溃,除四处蔓延的混乱、无序与不安全感外,毫无“成果”可言。安全方面,民众比上一年更关注国家安全及人身保障议题,更多人感到生存的基本“安全感”下降。受访者中46%不看好国内安全发展势头,52%认为本国政治状况堪忧。基于自身存续考虑,有23%的受访者因经济问题或政治安全因素而具有强烈移民倾向。[112]
第二,业已确定的安全政策对美欧的“反噬效应”格外严重,时隔五年缓解迹象尚不明显。美国断然抛弃老友穆巴拉克之举使得沙特、土耳其等传统非西方盟国与其关系急剧冷却,无法再笃信美国的保证。沙特开始强化海合会,土耳其则试图与中俄接近,类似的效应甚至蔓延到菲律宾和泰国,美国先前构筑的地缘秩序根基因安全政策持续失灵遭到了重创。[113]与此同时,阿拉伯世界动荡数年,石油价格应声而涨,这对严重依赖石油、经济尚未真正复苏的西方意味着什么不言而喻。[114]
恐怖主义的“侵蚀”堪称致命且防不胜防。“基地”和伊斯兰国两大组织不仅在利比亚、阿尔及利亚、突尼斯境内多次绑架、杀害来自美英法等国的人质,攻击西方国家使馆驻地、人员,还充分利用人员“循环圈”,蛊惑美欧籍人士前来投奔,进行洗脑式培训后“回流”至来源地,进而制造更大的恐怖效应。据“搜帆组织”(soufan)2015年调查报告显示,目前投身于IS和其他极端势力的27000~31000名外籍参战人员中,约有西欧籍5000名、北美籍280名。[115]
此外,不断觊觎美欧本土,企图复兴本·拉登“9·11”式的“辉煌”。以IS为例,因报复心切,2014年组建了专职策划对美欧袭击的机构,如今运作日渐成熟,有效提升了“作案”频率和成功率。[116]2015~2016年他们在欧洲屡屡展开“独狼式”恐袭,宣称对2015年法国《查理周刊》总部枪击案、巴黎市中心、法兰西体育场袭击事件和2016年的布鲁塞尔连环爆炸案负责。就美国调用无人机定点清除恐怖势力以及牵头组成“反伊斯兰国国际联盟”等举措,IS头目巴格达迪发出警告称“已经派出圣战战士追击美军士兵,并在网上公布了一份一百人的名单和地址,你们将在自己的领土上看到他们的身影,真主保佑,针对你们的战争才刚刚开始”。[117]2014年1月再次恐吓道“在黎凡特搞代理人战争将会获得与伊拉克一样的下场,向上帝保证你们将不久于战争”。2015年5月的得克萨斯漫画比赛场外枪击事件是IS首次袭击美国本土之举,该组织称“要警告美国,接下来的行动只会更可怕,更令其痛苦”。IS不断攻击美欧及其盟友的另一动机就是尽可能刺激对手,迫使对方开启热战并以牺牲和苦难换来更多人对反美、反西方、反世俗政权的认同和追随,由此吸纳来自世界各地的外籍参战者。
阿拉伯之春爆发前,西方国家习惯于通过一个极端组织与“基地”的密切程度和效忠情况来“判定”是否威胁美欧利益。但正处于革命发酵期的北非国家似乎越来越不适用此标准,原因在于“基地主义”思想还孕育了一大批“名不见经传”的小型地方武装组织或极端分子团伙,例如多次率众攻击美国驻突尼斯大使馆及周边美国学校的突尼斯伊斯兰教法虔信者(Ansar al Sharia in Tunisia),以及2012年与其他恐怖分子一道主谋班加西美使馆袭击案的利比亚伊斯兰教法虔信者组织(Ansar al Sharia in Libya)等,他们在威胁美欧的能力和残暴程度上并不亚于臭名昭著的“基地”分支或IS。[118]
难民危机始终是令欧盟及其成员国备感压力、意见不合且短期内难以妥善解决的问题。2011年及2013年,进入欧洲的北非难民五万有余,2014年该数字超过20万。即便2016年欧洲国家接待来自地中海南岸难民的总数显著回落,中线数据仍比上一年上浮近五分之一。[119]再看联合国2016年10月公布的地中海死亡数据,2015年每269名难民中便有一名死亡,2016年地中海中线遭遇海难的难民数量明显上升,每47人中便有一名葬身鱼腹。[120]直观的数字表明,北非难民给欧盟带来的接纳、安置、搜救压力无明显缓解。另外,德国方面发现,2015年12月来自阿尔及利亚和摩洛哥的北非难民数量骤增,[121]且据警方披露2016年阿尔及利亚、摩洛哥、突尼斯人的刑事犯罪率明显高于平均水平。“科隆性侵事件”后,德国多地爆发了数起反难民抗议和报复性攻击,2016年1月9日本土反伊斯兰组织PEGIDA发动1700名示威者走上街头抗议政府难民政策,局面失控情况下警方不得不动用高压水枪和催泪弹。作为接纳难民数持续保持全欧第一的国家,德国浮出水面的社会矛盾与不安全境况十分具有代表性,侧面反映出欧盟相关政策效果不佳,难民潮对欧盟的安全威胁迟迟难以解除。
综上所述,尽管面对安全乱局,美欧纷纷做出了回应和政策调整,但从北非五国近况以及美欧遭受来自北非的恐怖势力和难民潮困扰程度判断,二者的政策目标无一实现。无论是相对客观的易卜拉欣指数还是当地民众的反馈,均表示地区安全局势没能脱离高风险期,恐怖主义及难民潮仍是高悬于美欧头顶的“达摩克利斯之剑”,随时有可能酿成更大危机。
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[58]这里仅引用以美国国务院及国际开发署为实施主体的对外援助(foreign assistance)数据,负责的援助账户包括:军事融资计划(Foreign Military Financing),国际军事教育与训练(International Military Education and Training),经济援助(Economic Support Funds),国际麻醉品管制和执法(International Narcotics Control and Law Enforcement),防扩散、反恐和排雷(Nonproliferation,Anti-terrorism,Demining,and Related Programs),发展援助(Development Assistance),海外紧急行动(Overseas Contingency Operations),等等。并未涉及美国世纪挑战集团、其他全球/区域项目或国内其他部门机构所发出的援助。数据选取原因有二:一则此处数据来源——国会服务研究中心国别报告中天然使用了此种统计方式;二则上述主体最能体现美国的国家总体意愿且为推进对外民主渗透的主要机构。参见Alexis Arieff,“Morocco:Current Issues”,Congressional Research Service Report,No.RS21579,January 15,2015,p.13。
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[67]安全援助小组下辖项目有三,除FMF、IMET外,还有维持和平行动(Peacekeeping Operations,PKO),但鉴于美国国务院计划与倡议办公室对该项目支援金额的统计中未具体呈现北非国家数据,仅按照地区给出2014~2016年度近东地区援助总额需求以及多国观察员部队与跨撒哈拉地区反恐伙伴关系计划所耗金额,无法说明美国对北非五国的特定援助,故而在此未做引用。
[68]依据规定,FMF所有援助金额均不能兑现,而以帮助盟国或友好国家获得美产武器装备、物资及所需的军事服务和部分培训等方式完成,受援国获得FMF资助渠道有二:一是军售(Foreign Military Sales,FMS),二是直接商售﹙Direct Commercial Sales,DCS)。
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[94]即为了谁的安全(security for WHOM)、为了何种价值(security for WHICH value)、为了应对什么威胁(security from WHAT threats)、借助什么手段(security by WHAT means)。
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