什么是环境史?(修订版)
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环境史和旧史学

20世纪早期以前,历史作家将人类社会内部权力的行使,以及人类社会内部和社会之间为权力而进行的斗争,视为历史的恰当主题。因此,战争和领导人的职业生涯主导了他们的叙述。值得注意的是,西方最早的两位伟大的历史作家,即古希腊的希罗多德和修昔底德,每人都选择一场战争作为他的主题。马克思主义史学家将注意力转移到了无产阶级,也就是从事社会劳动的工人和农民,但即使这种叙述将经济添加到政治之中,它也仍然是社会权力斗争的故事。旧史学,当它意识到自然和环境的存在时,是将它们当作布景或背景来对待的,环境史则将它们当作活跃的有助于发展的力量。

最近,历史学家转而关注那些迄今为止记述得模糊不清、似乎缺乏力量的人,也就是转向妇女的历史,种族、宗教和争取性权利的少数群体的历史,以及儿童的历史。将环境史视为这一进程的一部分,是一种诱人的推断。在力量的金字塔中,野兽、树木以及大地占据了支撑金字塔结构的最底层。历史学家现在可以证明,这些被认为是无声的、基本上毫无防备的实体,其实是历史戏剧中真正的演员,也要将它们囊括在更大的叙事之中。随着伦理拓展已将权利地位赋予移民、妇女和从前的奴隶,而且近来已在考虑树木是否应当拥有权利,(51)因此,类似的历史拓展现在可以让叙事关注其他生物和要素。我们将会看到,正如上述其他形式的历史大多是社会和政治运动的产物一样,环境史的根源也与那些催生资源保护主义者和环保运动的根源交织在一起,这是确定无疑的。

环境史研究不能忽视现实的政治和军事力量,以及为其表面利益而行使权力的国家集团、经济组织和种族群体。2005年,道格拉斯·维纳在美国环境史学会会长致辞中宣称,“每一场‘环境’斗争,根本上都是利益集团之间关于权力的斗争。”(52)这就是乔基姆·拉德卡的《自然与权力:全球环境史》的主题。(53)他指出,保护或改善景观的合理规划,显然需要一个控制这一景观的集团,而其他集团几乎通常会遭到排斥、驱逐或剥削。在中亚,斯大林驱逐哈萨克牧民,是给小麦耕作开辟“处女地”;19世纪后期,英帝国主义者将自然经济主导的印度变成了受压榨和饥荒肆虐的地带;(54)而美国国家公园的创设常常牵涉对美洲土著印第安人的强行驱逐。(55)相比之下,墨西哥国家公园的创建,则认识到了农村人民的存在和需求。(56)

然而,如果将环境史简单地看作历史学科发展的一部分,那将是一个严重的错误。大自然并非无能为力;恰当地说,它是所有力量的源泉。大自然并非温顺地适应人类的经济,而是笼罩人类一切努力的经济体;没有它,人类的努力就是虚弱无力的。不能将自然环境纳入记述的历史,是片面的、不完整的历史。环境史之所以有用,是因为它能给历史学家更为传统的关注对象,如战争、外交、政治、法律、经济、技术、科学、哲学、艺术和文学等,增添基础知识和视角;环境史之所以有用,还因为它能揭示这些关注对象与物质世界和生命世界的潜在进程之间的关系。


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