Section 3 Management System

1.3.1 The Definition of Management System

Based on the concept of system,management is a complete system.Management system is defined as the organic whole combined by a number of interrelating and interacting elements and subsystems according to the overall managerial functions and targets.This concept includes the following specific meanings:

(1)Management system is constituted by a number of elements,these elements can be seen as the managerial subsystems,and they are interrelating and interacting.

(2)Management system is a multi-layered structure.Internally,the management system is divided into a number of subsystems that form an orderly structure.Externally,each management system is also a subsystem in the greater social management system.

(3)Management system is comprehensive,playing the function of the whole organization.That is to say,its value of existence lies in its management effectiveness,and any subsystem must be subject to the realization of the overall managerial functions and targets.

1.3.2 The Composition of Management System

Management system generally consists of the following elements:

(1)The management goal.Management goal is a concentrated reflection of management functions.Management goal is the starting point and the ultimate aim of the establishment and operation of management system,management system must be set up and run around the target.All of the managerial behaviors aim to effectively achieve their goals.

(2)The management subject.Management subject is the managers who are the core and the key elements in a management system.All the management behaviors,including allocating resources,organizing activities,promoting the running of whole system,and the realization of target depend on the managers to implement.Managers are the driver of the whole management system and are the crucial power to play the system's functions and achieve the system's goals.As the subject of the management,the managers are represented by the individual manager and also by the managers'group and their constitutive management institutions.

(3)The management object.The managers supervise and control the management objects.As an affected part of management behaviors,the management objects have important influences on the management effectiveness and the realization of the goals.Management objects include not only different types of organizations,but also the components and functional activities in every organization.

(4)The management media.Media mainly refers to the management mechanisms and methods.Management mechanisms and methods are the applied executive methods and approaches that work on the management subjects.The management mechanisms play a crucial role in the management system,and they are the most direct and core factor that decides whether the management is effective or not.While management methods are the ways to realize management mechanisms,and are the directly implementing means of management having the necessary role of"bridge"and"ship"to cross the river which are also very important.

(5)The management environment.Management environment refers to the combination of all kinds of internal and external conditions and factors in the process of implementation of management.Management behavior exists in certain environment,and is considerably affected by the management environment.So the management environment is an organic part of the management system.

1.3.3 Management Mechanism

The original meaning of mechanism refers to the structure and working principles of the machine.After it was introduced into management field,the concept of management mechanisms was put forward.Management mechanism refers to the structure and operation mechanism of the management system.

1.The Characteristics of Management Mechanism

(1)Internality.Management mechanism is the inner structure and mechanism of management system.Its formation and operation are completely determined by itself,and it is a kind of inner movement.

(2)Systematicness.Management system is a complete organic system with the structure and the role of the system,guaranteeing the realization of its functions.

(3)Objectivity.Any organization,as long as it is existing objectively with established internal structure and functions,is bound to produce the corresponding management mechanisms.The types and functions of this mechanism are objective reality that can not be changed by man's will.

(4)Automaticity.Once the management mechanism forms,it will spontaneously and dynamically induce and decide the enterprise's behaviors according to certain rules and orders.

(5)Adjustability.The management mechanism depends on the basic organizational structure,so if we change the organization's basic constitution or structure,the types and effects of the management mechanism will change accordingly.

2.The Composition of Management Mechanism

For a general management system,management mechanism mainly includes operating mechanism,dynamic mechanism and restraint mechanism as three sub-mechanisms.

(1)Operating mechanism.Operating mechanism is the most essential management mechanism in an organization and is the subject of management mechanism,which mainly refers to the operating methods,system's functions and operating principles of basic functions of an organization.Operating mechanism is universal.Any organization,big as a country or small as an enterprise,division or department,has its specific operation mechanism.

(2)Dynamic mechanism.Dynamic mechanism is a very important management mechanism.It is the mechanism of power generation for the operation of the management system and it refers to the mechanism of emerging and running of management system's power.It consists of three aspects,including interest-driven,government decree-promoted and social psychology-driven.

(3)Restraint mechanism.Restraint mechanism is the mechanism aiming to modify the behaviors of management system,it is to realize the management goals by guaranteeing correct running of the management system.It refers to the function and mechanism of constraining and correcting the management system's actions,which mainly includes the constraints on power,interests,responsibility and social psychology,etc.

1.3.4 Management Environment

Management environment refers to the combination of all kinds of forces and conditions that affect the organizational performance existing in the internal and external of organization.Environment is a basic condition for the survival and developing organization.It exists outside the boundaries of the organization and may affect the behaviors of the authorities directly or indirectly.According to the relationship between the organization and the environment,the management environment can be divided into general environment and specific environment,or indirect environment and direct environment.

1.General Environment

General environment refers to the environmental factors having impact on all the organizations in a particular society.It includes the following aspects:

(1)Economic environment:Economic environment mainly refers to the development of national economy,including interest rates,inflation rates,disposable income,stock market index and general economic cycles,etc.The changes in these macroeconomic factors will influence the enterprise's management and decision-making by changing the supply environment and market environment of the enterprise.

(2)Political and legal environment:Political and legal environment mainly refers to the overall political situation and the legislative and judicial status including political stability,social systems,party affiliation,the relevant laws and regulations and industrial policies,etc.Political stability is a prerequisite for the development of enterprises,and the law is the basic guarantee for fair competition among enterprises.

(3)Social cultural environment:Social cultural environment mainly includes the changes of social values,and the changes of social members,behavior and attitude and population's quantitative and structural changes,etc.The changes of social values will produce impact on industrial structure and scale.

(4)Technological environment:Technological environment mainly refers to the total level and changing trend of social technology.Technology has the characteristics of changing quickly and largely and effecting widely.Technological breakthroughs will have a great impact on enterprises,and sometimes the emerging of new technologies can cause a social technological revolution,create a series of new industries and force a number of existing industries to disappear.

(5)Natural resources factors:Natural resources factors mainly include the geographic locations,climate,resources,natural disasters,environmental pollutions and other factors.A country's natural resources and ecological environmental changes will bring the development opportunities or certain threat and restrictions to enterprises.

2.Specific Environment

An organization's specific environment refers to the environmental factors influencing a specific organization.Compared with the general environmental factors,specific environmental factors can directly provide more useful information to an organization.At the same time,it is more easily identified by organization's personnel.The specific environment includes the following contents:

(1)Client:Client is an environmental factor that satisfy the demand of an enterprise,mainly the market demand,and it can affect the enterprise's output.Customers benefit through lower prices,higher product quality or more services,and from the state that competitors opposite to each other.

(2)Supplier:It is the environmental factor relating to the enterprise's supplying resources,and belongs to enterprise's environmental factors of input.Suppliers can raise prices or reduce the quality of supplied products or services to place pressure on a particular enterprise,so that the enterprise can't keep up with the cost control and loose profit.

(3)Competitors:Competitors include the existing competitors in the same industry,potential new entrants and the threat of substitute products.The most obvious form of competition is:The enterprise produces and sells similar products in the same market resulting in the fierce competition among enterprises.The existing competitors often increase pressures on an enterprise by price competition,advertising,product introduction,improving customer service and maintenance.By introducing new business capabilities,new competitors have a desire to gain market share leading to the lower price or higher costs of enterprise's products.Substitute products keep the upper bound of enterprise's profits which limits the potential benefits of the enterprise.

(4)Government:Governmental departments refer to various relative departments executing supervision on enterprises'business for the national and social interests such as financial bureau,tax bureau,labor bureau,bureau of quality supervision and inspection,industrial and commercial bureau,etc.Therefore,the enterprises'managers also need to deal well with the relationship between their enterprises and these organizations or departments,and execute the producing and business operating activities under their supervision and constraint.

(5)Public:The public generally refers to all the existing communities,organizations,mass organizations or residents that pay attention to and have impact on the realization of a company's goal.In the society,for the sake of public interests,there are also a lot of organizations such as consumers'association,greenpeace organization which will also supervise the enterprises.

3.The Characteristics of Environment

Uncertainty of environment:Any organization's operation will be affected by the general and specific environment.The feature of uncertainty of environment,however,increases the risks of the organizations'failure of responding to environmental uncertainty.The organizations'uncertainty of environment results from the environmental factors'volatility and complexity.In a certain period of time,it is called dynamic environment if the organizations'environmental elements are changing greatly.And it is called stable environment if there is a very small degree of change of environmental elements.Stable environment is a relative concept.With the passing of time,stable environment may also become dynamic environment.When the complexity of the environment is used as another element to evaluate and analyze the uncertainty of environment,it refers to the number of environmental factors and the scope of knowledge these enterprises are required for these elements.The less an organization deals with customers,suppliers,governments,the public,the lower the complexity of environments is,and correspondingly,the smaller the uncertainty is.

The types of uncertainties of environment:The uncertainty of environment threatens the organization's success,therefore,managers should devote themselves to reducing the uncertainty.Analyzing the environmental stability and complexity as a whole,there are following four types:

(1)Relatively stable and simple environment.The enterprises in this kind of environment are faced with low uncertainty,so managers can execute control and management by carrying out discipline,regulations and standardized procedures.

(2)Relatively stable but complex environment.Enterprises in this situation are faced with different environment.These factors may change,but the change is gradual and predictable.

(3)Unstable but simple environment.Although the environments in this case only have a few different qualitative factors,the disordered changes often occur in supply and demand,so there is relatively high degree of uncertainty.

(4)Unstable and complex environment.Organizations may face the environment with extreme volatility and complexity.This is a very difficult situation with a high degree of uncertainty to deal with.

The influence and constraint of environment on the enterprises are objectively existing.There are only two ways for enterprises to cope with the environment.One is to make the enterprise in harmony with the environment while confronting the environmental uncertainty by predicting and constantly adjusting the internal structure.The other is to reduce the environmental constraints through the effective control on the environment,or improving the environment.

4.The Significance of Environmental Study

Environment on one hand provides the necessary conditions for organizations'activities,on the other hand,it plays a restricting role on organizations'activities.Therefore,it is a primary issue for the survival and development of the organization to grasp the present situation of environment and the changing trend of the future,utilize the opportunities and make them beneficial to organizational development,avoid the threats unfavorable to organizational development.For the enterprises,environmental study is of more vital significance.

(1)Environment is the soil for survival and development of enterprises.

From the macroscopic point of view,in order to solve the social,political,economic problems,every country and government always formulate a series of principles,policies which will change when the national situation changes.If an enterprise can't correctly predict and estimate these changes,it may face a very passive situation.If the enterprise make full preparation for these changes,it can seize the opportunity and realize the long-term development.

Speaking from the microscopic perspective,all the factors needed for enterprises'operation should be obtained from the external environment,and products produced by the enterprises are sold through the market.Thus,the enterprises'economic benefit and social benefit should be achieved through the external environment.

(2)External environment affects the internal management relations.

A country's social system,principles and policies,economic plans,as well as market demand,will directly or indirectly affect the structure of an enterprise,the workers'thought,andthe distribution of interests,etc.For example,the enterprise's organizational structure should be adjusted in accordance with the external changes such as the model of market competition,scientific and technological development,etc.And the enterprise's internal distribution system should also be implemented according to the total value realized in the market for distribution.

(3)External environment affects the features of enterprise management.

Companies in different countries and regions will form their own management characteristics,and this is largely due to the influence of the environment.For example,due to the different environments,American and Japanese companies have different characteristics in management.

Environmental research is necessary for management and the fundamental cause is that the environment is in constant change.Through environment study the enterprise can understand not only now but also the future and it is essential for the various managerial works of enterprises.

【阅读资料】

韦尔奇：管理秘籍

杰克·韦尔奇在GE（General Electric Co.，美国通用电气公司）的功过是非尚在争论之中，但人们对他在管理这个庞大帝国时的别出心裁仍然津津乐道。

1.生产“人才”

杰克·韦尔奇在业界之所以重要，是因为他生产“人才”。在最近一次GE全球前500名经理人员会议上，杰克·韦尔奇透露他成功的重要秘诀之一时说：GE成功的最重要原因是用人。与很多CEO不同，杰克·韦尔奇把50%以上的工作时间花在了人事上，他认为自己最大的成就是关心和培养人才。

杰克·韦尔奇至少能叫出1 000名通用电气高级管理人员（GE约有员工17万名）的名字，知道他们的职责，知道他们在做什么。这对一名员工来说是莫大的鼓舞，杰克·韦尔奇自己曾说：“我们所能做的是把赌注压在我们所选择的人身上。因此，我的全部工作就是选择适当的人。”杰克·韦尔奇亲自接见所有申请担任通用电气500个高级职位的人。他坚信只有了解他们才能信任他们。

他说：“我不懂如何制造飞机引擎，我也不知道在NBC应播放什么节目，我们在英国有项有争议的保险业务，我不能做那项业务，但是那个给我提建议的人想干，我相信他，我相信他能干好。”在世界最令人钦佩的分公司中，很少有哪家公司的老板能这样做。

2.非正式沟通

GE最成功的地方是杰克·韦尔奇在通用电气建立起来的非正式沟通的企业文化。通过这种非正式沟通，杰克·韦尔奇不失时机地让人感到他的存在。

使公司变得“非正式”意味着打破发布命令的链条，促进不同层次之间的交流，改革付酬的方法，让员工们觉得他们是在为一个几乎人人都知之甚深的老板工作，而不是一个庞大的公司。杰克·韦尔奇比他人更知晓“意外”两字的价值。每个星期，他都会不事先通知地造访某些工厂的办公室；临时安排与下属经理人员共进午餐；工作人员还会从传真机上收到杰克·韦尔奇手书的便笺，上面是他干净利落的字体。所有这些的用意在于引导和影响一个机构庞大而复杂的公司，杰克·韦尔奇最擅长的非正式沟通方式就是写便笺。写这些便笺的目的就是为了鼓励、激发和要求行动。杰克·韦尔奇通过便笺表明他对员工的关怀，使员工感到他们之间已从单纯的主管与下属的关系转变为平等的关系。

3.打破边界

杰克·韦尔奇还提出了一个“无边界行为”概念，并大力推广它。他坚信不论何时何地都会有一个拥有好想法的人存在，而当务之急是设法将他找出来，向他学习，并快速付诸行动。“无边界行为”的目的就是拆毁所有阻碍沟通、阻碍找出好想法的高墙。它是这些理念本身的价值。而非依照提出这些理念的人所在的层级来对其进行评价。杰克·韦尔奇这样做就是想铲除所有阻碍沟通的障碍。他有一个形象的比喻：“一栋建筑物有墙壁和地板，墙壁分开了职务。地板则区分了层级，而我要将所有的人全都聚在一个打通的大房间里。”GE一直通过群策群力的方法大规模清除企业的界限。这一做法称为“Workout计划”。来自各个企业、各个层次的员工济济一堂，发泄他们的不满，提出各种建议，清除一个又一个不具有生产能力的工作，员工不必担心因为发表意见而受批评。群策群力的方法丰富了GE的企业文化，使之能够接受来自每一个人和每一个地方的创意。

【本章提要】

·管理就是在特定的环境下，对组织所拥有的资源进行有效的计划、组织、领导和控制，以便达成既定的组织目标的活动过程。管理具有动态性、科学性、艺术性、创造性和经济性的特性。

·管理的基本职能是：计划、组织、领导和控制。管理工作就是围绕这四项工作展开的。

·管理者就是在协作过程中，负责协调他人的活动，从而对组织完成预期任务做出贡献的人员。管理者在协调他人活动时要进行各种管理工作。

·管理者通常扮演处理人际关系、信息传递以及决策制定等角色，而且这些角色是变化的。

·管理者良好的心智模式包括：远见卓识、健全的心理、优秀的品质。管理者应当具备创新能力、转化能力、应变能力、组织协调能力等关键能力。

·管理是一个系统，由管理目标、管理主体、管理对象、管理媒介和管理环境构成。

·管理机制本质上是管理系统的内在联系、功能及运行原理，包括运行机制、动力机制和约束机制。

·环境是组织生存发展的基本条件。它存在于组织界限之外，并可能对管理当局的行为产生直接或间接的影响。按照组织与环境的关系，可将环境分为一般环境和具体环境，或者说间接环境和直接环境。

【关键词】

管理（Management）计划（Planning）组织（Organizing）领导（Leading）

控制（Controlling）管理者（Manager）管理职能（Management Function）

心智模式（Mental Model）管理系统（Management System）

管理机制（Management Mechanism）

【复习与思考】

1.怎样全面理解管理的含义和特性？

2.管理的性质和职能如何？

3.管理者应当扮演什么角色？

4.优秀的管理者应具有怎样的心智模式和管理能力？

5.什么是管理系统和管理机制？

6.管理环境的内容是怎样的？

【研究与讨论】

1.学习管理学对于有志成为管理者的人来说有何意义？

2.你认为管理的本质究竟是什么？为什么？

3.并不是所有的人都认为他们所在的组织需要管理，还有许多人不想受人管理。你认为有可能吗？为什么？

4.如果一个人在组织中没有下属人员，那他是不是管理者？为什么？

5.有人认为“有权就会管理”，你认同这种观点吗？如果你想成为一名称职的管理者，你应当怎样塑造自己？

6.管理能成为一种职业吗？

【实践演练】

1.访问一位企业经理，了解他一天的工作并按时间顺序记录下来，然后按管理职能和管理角色对这些活动进行分类和比较，看看有什么发现。

2.访问一位非企业组织的管理人员，了解他的工作与企业经理的工作有何不同。

3.如果有一间餐馆让你去管理，你将怎样安排别人的工作和你自己的工作？

【管理模拟】

1.学习组建一家小型公司。

2.为该公司设计管理目标。

3.为公司管理人员进行角色定位。

4.由经理组织管理层研讨公司所处的环境。

【本章案例】

关于耐克的辩论

一位针对耐克公司的批评家说道：“一个公司如果无视社会责任的话，那它就是在玩火。”还有人指责耐克公司所崇尚的是暴力和低劣的品位，在提高价值观方面无所作为，特别是对于那些容易受影响的青少年。国际足球巨商们怒斥耐克让美国足球染上了“金钱万能”的疾病。人权组织指责耐克的承包商经营着像监狱一样的工厂，雇用13岁的儿童，对待工人像对待奴隶一样。耐克公司虽否认这些指控，但也还是改变了其运营方式。

耐克一直为其激进、反叛、反定式的形象而骄傲。这种活跃的形象在美国获得了暴利。但是，耐克把未来寄予国际大市场。公司希望超过一半的收入来自海外市场。就在耐克努力向国际市场扩张时，有人指责公司的很多决策不负责任。

例如，在《美国足球》杂志上，耐克的一则广告是这样的：“欧洲、亚洲和拉丁美洲关闭了运动馆，藏起了纪念章，把钱投向除臭剂。为此，亚洲不振、拉丁美洲不威、欧洲也将蹈此覆辙……世界的警钟已敲响。”除臭剂生产线并没有让人发笑，反而是一些视耐克为丑陋的美国人，正在破坏神圣的传统。

耐克的一个电视商业广告片刻画了一位曼联队队员正在怒斥一个球迷，并辱骂那位让他与耐克签约的教练。

亚特兰大奥林匹克运动会上，广告大战中的耐克采用了这样的标语：“你不是赢得了银牌，而是失去了金牌。”来自几个国家的奥委会成员对此非常愤怒。据称该标语诋毁了奥林匹克的竞争精神，并贬低了未能获得金牌的所有运动员。

几年前，有报道称，在越南，耐克给当地雇员所发放的日工资还不够维持一天包括米饭、蔬菜和豆腐的三顿饭。美国商人Thuyen Nguyen采访了35位越南工人并做出如下总结：其中32人体重减轻，受到屈辱，其中包括冷酷的饮水量限制，一天只能喝两次水；8小时换班时才有上厕所的机会；工作不好时头部被打，罚跪时两手朝上举并要求长达25分钟；嘴巴上贴胶条以禁止说话；在阳光下长时间罚站；一遍又一遍地罚写所犯的错误。为此，在Doonesbury杂志上，耐克因其越南工厂的条件而受到批评。尽管如此，耐克的批评家也承认耐克不是唯一的或最坏的违法公司。

许多人认为耐克越南工厂的条件是非常不道德的。但尼加拉瓜外长则认为反血汗工厂运动是以拉丁美洲最贫穷国家的就业和投资的损失为代价的，这些国家的失业率将近50%。“公司离开，我们的就业就没有指望了……我们在最底层，关键是我们没有被踢开。”《财富》杂志上有一篇题为“血汗工厂案例”的文章，Hoover研究所和纳瓦尔研究生院的大卫·R.汉德森争辩道：批评家们一定不能无视这一个事实，即虽然这些童工的报酬低廉，但一旦失去了工作会发生什么？汉德森写道：“如果你把他们不得已的选择中最好的东西抽走的话，你不会使他们过得更好……总之，血汗工厂是一条脱贫致富的道路。”

毛根是同意“耐克进入中国后，家庭生活好转了”这样的观点的。毛根在一家生产耐克和阿迪达斯的鞋厂工作，月收入150美元。他将绝大多数收入寄回家，为其父母的稻田添了新犁，盖了新房，买了21寸的彩电，还攒钱要与妻子开一个小商店。由于外资和出口的影响，中国农村人均收入自1978年以来增长了10倍。收入主要来自成千上万的鞋厂、服装厂、玩具厂和电器厂。

1997年底，耐克在其股东大会上声称其将与印度尼西亚4家违反劳工标准的工厂断绝关系。其董事长说：这样的违法行为只是例外。1998年年中，董事长菲尔·奈特公开承认这些违法行为有损公司形象，并声称将提高工人的最低工资，在其海外工厂中按美国空气质量标准运作。

现在，耐克宣布希望顾客监督生产工厂的情况，并邀请了16名学生监督其32个合作工厂，在网络发布其原始观察记录，同时发布一些其他审计报告。行业内其他厂家不想这样公开，而耐克则认为这样做一方面是针对反血汗工厂运动的计策，另一方面也能促使行业内的其他企业也这么做。

（资料来源：贝特曼等著，王雪莉译：《管理学：新竞争格局》（第六版），北京：北京大学出版社2007年版，第167～169页）

思考问题：

1.耐克在美国的成功是无可争议的，其战略和战术是什么？你对上述行为的看法是什么？它们仅是美国商业决策所产生的不良后果吗？它们是不负责任的或不道德的吗？

2.如果耐克的一些决定是不道德的，那么哪些是最严重的不道德行为？哪些是最不严重的？你是怎样得出这些判断的？

3.你如何评价耐克对批评所做的反应？

4.对于本案例提到的问题耐克还能做什么？