中国临床肿瘤学进展2018
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超声评估复发/持续性及转移性甲状腺癌

席雪华 高琼 张波
北京协和医院

分化型甲状腺癌(Differentiated thyroid cancer,DTC)占甲状腺癌的90%以上,主要包括乳头状甲状腺癌(Papillary thyroid cancer,PTC)及滤泡癌(Follicular cancer,FC),20%~50%的DTC患者早期发生颈部淋巴结转移[1-4]。目前DTC治疗的主要方法为手术切除及/或术后行131I治疗以及TSH抑制治疗。2014年美国SEER数据库表明,DTC治疗后5年生存率高达97.9%。初次治疗后DTC发生复发转移率可达30%,并且大多数的复发转移发生在首次治疗后的5年内[5-6]。对于这些患者,约25%~50%的患者将成为碘难治性甲状腺癌(radioactive iodine-refractory differentiated thyroid cancer,RAIRDTC),5年生存率不足50%,10年生存率不足10%;RAIRDTC发生远处转移的患者5年生存率为62%[7-9]。因此,DTC术后应进行长期规律随访,以监测是否发生复发转移。首次手术未彻底清除转移性淋巴结是DTC术后病变复发或持续存在的主要原因[10-11]。DTC治疗后的复发转移主要发生在颈部淋巴结及甲状腺床[12]。目前颈部超声与血清甲状腺球蛋白(thyroglobulin,Tg)是DTC治疗后随访的主要检查方法。

运用颈部超声来评估甲状腺治疗效果和复发主要是基于早期治疗后复发或持续存在的甲状腺癌灶常常是颈部淋巴结转移,约占60%~75%[6,13-16],20%为甲状腺床复发。研究发现超声诊断复发或持续性DTC的敏感性与特异性均在85%以上[17-18]。对于微小的复发转移病灶,血清Tg检查尚不能发现,但超声检查可发现这些微小的复发转移病灶[18-19]

颈部超声需要高质量的高分辨率超声仪[20]。采用高频线阵变频探头,12MHz或以上,变频可至8MHz或10MHz用于深部组织的扫查。小型扇阵或曲面探头8.5MHz以下用于评估上纵隔。彩色多普勒的脉冲重复频率设置为等于或低于800Hz,方便检出正常或异常组织内的低速血流。超声诊断和治疗均依赖操作者,在有经验的人的手里,颈部超声是检查局部复发或甲状腺床转移的最优价值的工具,不论术前或者在术后的短期、长期随访[21]。医生应该接受相应的培训,并且在掌握了特殊的扫查技巧和积累了一定经验之后,再进行甲状腺癌患者治疗后颈部超声评估。培训内容包括标准化的特征学习,每年评估复发甲状腺癌、转移性淋巴结、局部复发不低于30例,每年不低于150例US-FNA,其中样本量不足低于10%[22-23]

DTC术后超声评估内容

超声需要评估的内容包括甲状腺床有无复发病灶、颈部有无复发或持续存在的转移性淋巴结淋、颈内静脉内有无血栓和(或)癌栓形成、颈部软组织内有无种植或转移灶以及有无远处脏器转移灶,包括腹盆腔脏器及骨骼表面。

1.甲状腺床的超声评估

对甲状腺床的评估包括:肿瘤残留或复发、腺叶残留、局部瘢痕形成、未完全吸收的明胶海绵以及局部淋巴液集聚。复发病变多表现为:低回声,不规则边界,长轴显示为椭圆形,但是横切面显示为纵横比大于1,可伴有微钙化和囊性变,彩色多普勒显示血流信号增加。若复发肿物侵及气管,可引起气管软骨中断(后附插页图2)。Shin[24]等研究表明复发结节内微钙化与原发乳头状癌相比不常见,约占10%,但刘文英等[25]研究中微钙化发生率约40%。如出现低回声区域则可能为复发和/或可疑病变,但是也可以是自体免疫性甲状腺炎,肉芽肿,反应增生性良性淋巴结,或者甲状旁腺来源占位,如甲状旁腺腺瘤等。术后甲状腺床常可见小的腺体残留,通常为等回声和类圆形。局部复发还应该与局部瘢痕相鉴别,后者早期多呈低回声且合并有强回声,内无血流信号。

图2 男,61岁,多次甲状腺术后,超声发现甲状腺床局部实性占位,气管软骨连续性中断,考虑局部复发累及气管软骨。临床行气管切开

2.颈部淋巴结的超声评估

颈部淋巴结可分为三种不同类型:正常淋巴结、不确定淋巴结和可疑淋巴结。正常淋巴结呈卵圆形,大小正常,无可疑征象。28.6%~87%的淋巴结可以显示淋巴结门,2/3的正常淋巴结可以看到门血流,18%的良性淋巴结可以看到皮质边缘血流信号[26-29]。灰阶可能看不到淋巴结门,血流信号可以帮助显示。淋巴结门或淋巴结门血流信号消失的意义不大,但是如果有淋巴结门则恶性的可能性会降低。不能确定性质淋巴结没有淋巴结门,且至少具备以下特征之一:①圆形(后附插页图1);②短轴增大,Ⅱ区≥8mm,Ⅲ区、Ⅳ区和Ⅵ区≥5mm;③中心性血流信号增多。

图1 淋巴结形态示意图。左图为正常淋巴结形态,呈卵圆形;右图为淋巴结形态变圆

可疑恶性淋巴结(至少具备以下一个征象)(后附插页图3):①微钙化;②部分囊性变;③周围或弥漫性血流信号增多;④高回声组织类似甲状腺腺体回声。淋巴结长径诊断价值不大,只有短轴或Steinkamp比率(L/S,长径/短径)应该被考虑[21],但淋巴结短径作为评估淋巴结是否转移的临界值尚未统一,2015年ATA指南中推荐淋巴结最短径线>8~10mm建议行FNA。可疑淋巴结形态变圆即淋巴结的长径与短径比值小于2(L/T<2);微钙化:钙化灶≤1mm;皮质内高回声:甲状腺球蛋白的沉积常表现为高回声;皮质内无回声:肿瘤细胞的浸润所致液化性坏死,超声中显示为无回声;周边型血流信号:由于肿瘤细胞侵犯淋巴结皮质释放血管生成因子促进新生血管的生成导致淋巴结皮质周边的血流信号增加,因此转移性淋巴结常显示为周边型血流信号[30-33]。当甲状腺床或颈部淋巴结出现一个或一个以上可疑征象时即可认为存在复发或持续性病灶。Leboulleux等[34]研究认为,周边型血流信号诊断转移性淋巴结的敏感性与特异性最好(分别为86%,82%),在大于7mm的淋巴结中如果出现皮质内强回声即为转移性淋巴结。在评估淋巴结是否发生转移时,更应注重对这两种特征的识别。皮质内高回声与皮质内无回声特异性较高而敏感性很低[34],Esen等[35-36]研究发现对于小淋巴结(短径<5~7mm),由于其形态趋于圆形,可能会产生假阳性的结果。结合血清Tg和个体的复发风险分层可以帮助解释图像结果,特别是小淋巴结具有不确定的超声征象时。对二次手术的DTC患者,受手术瘢痕等影响,超声评估淋巴结转移的难度增加。因此对复发转移性DTC的诊断,需结合多个声像图特征及其他检查(如血清学及其他影像学)进行综合评估。

图3 DTC术后,颈部复发转移性淋巴结
A.显示皮质内高回声;B.显示实质内无回声;C.皮质内微钙化;D.显示皮质边缘条状血流

3.静脉、软组织的复发

甲状腺癌可以导致甲状腺静脉或颈内静脉瘤栓[37-38]。超声可以无创的显示瘤栓在静脉内延伸,可以在甲状腺恶性占位时判断早期静脉侵犯。

目前没有报道描述皮下脂肪和/或肌层内甲状腺癌复发病灶的超声特征。这样的病变表现为实性结节,边界不规则,部分可以显示能量多普勒血流信号。DTC术后出现颈部软组织的非淋巴结性种植或转移灶临床并不多见,Gao等[39]研究表明这可能是DTC发生远处转移的危险因素,软组织复发病灶多位于皮下或肌层内(后附插页图4),可为多发,超声表现不同于转移性淋巴结,易与异位甲状腺混淆,转移性淋巴结及异位甲状腺位置通常较深,且异位甲状腺多为单发。

图4 女,35岁,甲状腺部分切除术后8年,可疑恶性,自触及胸骨上窝皮下实性结节,手术切除,病理提示颈前横纹肌及脂肪组织内甲状腺乳头状癌结节
超声检查体位及标准报告描述

患者取头过伸位,方便中央区下部和Ⅳ区的扫查。颏下至锁骨上、胸骨上后方均是扫查范围,横切面扫查侧方和中央区,可疑部位使用长轴扫查和多普勒扫查。三个部位需要单独扫查:Ⅵ区、Ⅱ~Ⅵ区、ⅤA和ⅤB区。需特别关注咽后、咽旁及气管食管沟区域,评估淋巴结的周围组织关系时,应当使头恢复至自然位置。

标准报告包括两部分内容:①甲状腺床:有无残余腺体。描述任何一个可疑病变的大小(三个径线)、形状、边界、回声、内部结构和血流情况。②所有的淋巴结区域:描述任何不确定或可疑淋巴结。描述内容包括解剖部位,三个径线,灰阶(内部结构、回声、钙化)和多普勒特征。解剖部位的描述按照外科手术解剖标记。淋巴结的位置可以在表示部位的图上标出。

DTC术后超声随访的时期和频度

根据美国2015年ATA指南[33]将DTC术后复发风险分为低、中、高危组(表1),结合分析颈部超声、去残后131I扫查、CT和/或SPECT-CT,则可以用于早期评估持续或复发风险[40],尤其对于ATA指南里中危患者术后非刺激性血清Tg维持在低水平[41]。超声可以帮助发现结构性持续存在的病变,甚至在低危险的患者[42]

附表1 2015年美国甲状腺学会《成人分化型甲状腺癌诊治指南》复发风险分层
续表

对于甲状腺全切术后的患者,术后1~3个月评估甲状腺床较困难,应该推后。但是在甲状腺全切术后,在去残进行前(术后1~3个月),如果出现以下情形应进行超声检查评估侧方淋巴结:①癌灶是在组织病理检查时偶然发现;②没有详尽的术前超声报告说明评估过侧方以除外持续性转移性淋巴结[43-45];③在去残碘扫查时发现甲状床以外存在活跃摄碘病灶;④如果去残前Tg值远高于预期,提供在去残后扫描时残留甲状腺组织的体积(如当TSH>30mIU/L)。清甲后应对甲状腺床及中央区和周围区淋巴结进行全面评估,对比术前临床及影像学资料,可帮助判断外科手术是否达到预期目标,可能有利于区别复发和持续存在DTC癌灶[46]。首诊治疗后6~12个月的这次评估最重要,可以结合血清Tg水平再次评估复发风险和首诊治疗疗效,帮助医生在术后随访中进行个体化的风险再分层[47-48]。术后1~5年,根据术后6~12个月的再次风险分层,如果血清Tg检测不到(TgAb阴性患者)且超声为正常,极低危和低危患者存在持续或复发甲状腺癌的风险极低,因此随后不必要进行每年1次超声检查[49];5年之后,如果前期的随访中没有临床、超声或生化异常,则不在推荐规律的超声检查,5~7年进行1次超声检查结合血清Tg即可[19,22]。对于高危患者,推荐每年1~2次超声检查,主要取决于个体特点、pTNM分期,血清Tg水平和评估结果[6],当血清学指标和超声结果相矛盾时,采用其他影像学技术如颈胸部CT、MRI,18FDG-PET;在5年之后,行第2次风险评估,之后的随访间隔取决于该次评估结果。如果血清Tg水平上升和/或临床出现颈部异常,则建议做颈部超声检查[6,22]。一些研究者报道如果抑制性TG水平是<0.15或0.27ng/ml[50],或者刺激性血清Tg ≤1.4ng/ml[51-52],而且Tg-Ab为阴性,那么局部复发的可能性很小。但是,约10%~20%的淋巴结转移病人Tg水平检测不到,特别是侵袭性或分化差的类型。对于甲状腺侧叶切除的患者,由于血清Tg的检测作用失灵,超声就成为最重要的监测手段[53],可在术后6~12个月进行术后第1次评估,每隔2~3年进行1次超声检查。

DTC术后对可疑病变进行US-FNA

对于超声发现的甲状腺床可疑复发病变及颈部可疑淋巴结肿大,当诊断不明确时,可采取超声导引下细针穿刺活检(fine-needle aspiration,FNA)(US-FNA)或FNA-Tg检查[36,54]。通过US-FNA可获得细胞学检查和Tg测量,是早期诊断分化型甲状腺癌颈部转移复发灶的最好手段[19,55]。但是这项技术有6%~8%的假阴性率[55],可能由于细胞数量不足或细胞缺乏典型恶性征象,而产生假阴性结果[58]

超声可实时监测穿刺针移动,记录针尖的位置。对于囊实性结节,吸取实性部分进行细胞学检测,液性部分进行Tg检测或离心后细胞学检测。细胞学标本可通过毛细技术或负压抽吸技术制成玻片或用液体冲洗针头。抽吸液可行Tg和降钙素测量。2013年欧洲指南和2011年法国甲状腺内分泌研究组[36,56]的专家共识对甲状腺术后FNA-Tg的建议诊断阳性值是:Tg<1ng/FNA:正常,Tg=1~10ng/FNA(需要同细胞学检查对比),Tg>10ng/FNA:提示淋巴结内或甲状腺床存在肿瘤组织(Tg-Ab过高会干扰FNA-Tg的测量,导致虚假的FNA-Tg低水平表达)。

对于超声发现的甲状腺床可疑病变,FNA的适应证为可疑病变大于10mm,如病灶较小而且监测生长时表现径线稳定,则可选择观察。在特定情况下,特别是当甲状腺床是缝线肉芽肿时,原位病变Tg检测可以提供有价值的信息:即FNATg水平低于界限值则提示良性病变而非肿瘤复发[57]。对于超声发现的可疑淋巴结,在其最短径线≥8~10mm时可行FNA细胞学检查和FNA-Tg,后者可以提高US-FNA诊断转移性淋巴结[19,55,58-59]。对于超声不确定淋巴结,应结合患者分期、病史、结节大小、部位、血清Tg水平,评估是否行FNA细胞学检查和FNA-Tg。对于短径<5~7mm的微小颈部淋巴结,评估困难,它们的临床意义目前尚不清楚,在长期的系列随访中保持大小稳定,研究者认为其安全[6,22,60]。有研究表明通过手术切除PTC颈部复发淋巴结而获得生化指标好转的比例只有27%[61]。因此,对于小淋巴结和甲状腺床病变小于10mm的结节,采用保守的方法是谨慎的选择[62]

颈部淋巴结的活检很少引起出血等并发症,淋巴结FNA出血的报道目前没有。口服抗血栓治疗药物(氯吡格雷、肝素或法华令等)的患者,FNA后出血并发症并没有增加。建议对于口服法华令的患者INR控制在<2.5或<3为好,抗血小板聚集药物,包括阿司匹林,可以继续服用。

术前和术中颈部复发病灶超声定位

侵袭性和复发性甲状腺癌外科手术治疗的难点是术中肿瘤的精准定位困难、术中遗漏小的转移淋巴结和并发症。运用不同技术和术中探头可行性的研究陆续有报道[63-65]。研究者利用锝-蛋白大颗粒放射定位就是其中的一种超声引导技术。木炭示径图定位,是一个安全、有效、低耗技术,可以用于辅助外科手术,被用于标识外科医生定位困难的颈部复发病灶,这些病灶多径线较小或者位置较深。此技术最大的优势在于木炭注射后会保留3个月,唯一报道的并发症为沿着瘢痕分布的一个皮下黑点(3.6%)。其操作过程同US-FNA类似,在可疑淋巴结内或周围用27G针头注射木炭无菌混悬液,理想的注射量大约为0.3~0.5ml,成功率介于84%~90%,失败的病例主要是由于淋巴结位于颈总动脉或颈内静脉后方[66],病灶大小介于4~18mm[67]。该技术的缺陷是治疗局限在超声看到的淋巴结或肿块,优点为细针穿刺安全。美兰也是一种重要示踪办法,但是缺点是快速消散。放射引导手术是为了提高持续或复发分化型甲状腺癌外科手术切除完整性,术中131I探头用于能够浓聚131I的转移性淋巴结[64],这种探头对20/50患者做出了决定性的决策。但是,这项研究没有比较与术前超声的诊断价值[64]

复发颈部甲状腺恶性病灶手速治疗的替代疗法:超声引导下消融治疗

消融治疗的原理是引起凝固性坏死和小血管的血栓。运用经皮酒精注射疗法(percutaneous ethanol injection therapy,PEIT)治疗囊性甲状腺结节可达大约80%的缓解率,而实行良性结节的缩小率为50%。由于PEIT有一些副作用,长期随访时会复发,根据目前的指南[68],囊性甲状腺结节为唯一适应证。良性实性结节可使用间歇激光光凝固治疗(Intermittent laser photocoagulation therapy,ILP)[69]或射频消融。10年前这项技术就提出了可以应用于局部甲状腺转移癌的治疗[70]。最大的问题是评估这项超声引导下技术治疗恶性结节是非对照研究,仅仅是少数几个中心的高度选择的患者。这项技术与局灶性切除很类似,但是我们缺乏数据来证实这种技术与观察或标准手术比较是否提高了生存预后。尽管有一些缺陷,但是已有的研究证实了使用PEIT和ILP对PTC颈部淋巴结转移均可取得显著结果[71-73]。研究表明63例患者,109个转移淋巴结中有101个淋巴结PEIT治疗有效(92个完全缓解),没有显著副作用[72]。在现有的研究中,5个患者的8个转移性淋巴结,ILP可以作为手术的替代方法,作用类似[73]

超声对复发持续性及转移性DTC具有较高的诊断价值,可在早期有效评估甲状腺床、颈部淋巴结、颈部静脉及周围软组织,对于发现的可疑病变可在超声引导下FNA和FNA-Tg检查,必要时可采用超声引导下定位或消融治疗,是DTC治疗后随访的主要检查方法。

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