1.3　考研真题与典型题详解

I. Fill in the blanks.

1．Language, broadly speaking, is a means of _____ communication.

【答案】verbal

【解析】语言是一种口头交流的手段。

2．In any language words can be used in new ways to mean new things and can be combined into innumerable sentences based on limited rules. This feature is usually termed _____.

【答案】productivity

【解析】用有限表现无限就是能产性。

3．Linguistics is the scientific study of _____.

【答案】language

【解析】语言学是对语言的科学研究。

4．Modern linguistic is _____ in the sense that the linguist tries to discover what language is rather than lay down some rules for people to observe.

【答案】descriptive

【解析】发现语言的规律而不是规定就是描述性。

5．One general principle of linguistic analysis is the primacy of _____ over writing.

【答案】speech

【解析】语言学研究是以口头为基础而不是书面。

6．Theory that primitive man made involuntary vocal noises while performing heavy work has been called the _____ theory.

【答案】yo-he-ho

【解析】语言的起源有“汪汪”理论，“噗噗”理论和“哟嘿吼”理论。“哟嘿吼”理论语言起源于原始人共同劳动时发出的有节奏的哼哟声。

7．Language has many functions. We can use language to talk about itself. This function is _____.

【答案】metalingual function

8．The theory that language arose from instinctive emotional cries, expressive of pain or joy has been called the _____ theory.

【答案】pooh-pooh

9．Halliday proposes a theory of metafunctions of language, that is, language has _____, interpersonal and textual functions.(中山大学2008研)

【答案】ideational

【解析】韩理德将儿童的语言功能范围逐渐缩小，简化成为一套高度符号化和抽象化的功能：概念、人际、语篇功能。

10．_____ function is realized by mood and modality.（中山大学2006研）

【答案】Interpersonal

【解析】人际功能通过语气情态实现。

11．When language is used for establishing an atmosphere or maintaining social contact rather than exchanging information or ideas, its function is _____ function.（北二外2005研）

【答案】phatic

【解析】寒暄功能是指那些有助于确立和维持人际关系的表达，例如俚语、玩笑、行话、礼节性的问候、社会方言或地域方言的转用等。

II. Multiple Choice

1．Which of the following statement is NOT true? （大连外国语学院2008研）

A. Language is a means of vocal communication.

B. Language is instrumental.

C. Language is social and conventional.

【答案】B

【解析】语言不是机械的工具的，而是一种交流方式。

2．The functions of language do NOT include _____. （大连外国语学院2008研）

A. informative function

B. interpersonal function

C. metacognitive function

【答案】C

【解析】语言的主要功能包括寒暄功能，指示功能，信息功能，疑问功能，表达功能，施为功能，和劝说功能。

3．The most important sociological use of language is the _____ function, by which people establish and maintain their status in a society. （西安外国语学院2006研）

A. performative

B. interpersonal

C. phatic

D. metalingual

【答案】B

【解析】语言最重要的社会功能是人际功能。

4．Study the following dialogue. What function does it play according to the functions of language?

—A nice day, isn’t it?

—Right! I really enjoy the sunlight.

A. Emotive

B. Phatic

C. Performative

D. Interpersonal

【答案】B

【解析】谈论天气的问候语体现了语言的寒暄功能。

5．Which of the following statements is true of Jacobson’s framework of language functions?

A. The referential function is to indulge in language for its own sake

B. The emotive function is to convey message and information

C. The conative function is to clear up intentions, words and meanings

D. The phatic function is to establish communion with others

【答案】D

【解析】所指功能是指用语言来传达信息，情感功能是表达一种态度，感受；意动功能是通过命令和恳求说服影响他人。

6．The function of the sentence“Water boils at 100 degree Centigrade”is  .

A. interrogative

B. directive

C. informative

D. performative

【答案】C

【解析】语言的信息功能是指语言用来陈述某件事情，提供信息或用作推理。

7．In Chinese when someone breaks a bowl or a plate the host or the people present are likely to say sui sui ping an (every year be safe and happy) as a means of controlling the forces which the believers feel might affect their lives. Which functions does it perform?

A. Interpersonal

B. Emotive

C. Performative

D. Recreational

【答案】C

8．“Don’t end a sentence with a preposition.” This is an example of _____ rules.

A. prescriptive

B. descriptive

C. transformational

D. functional

【答案】A

9．The functions of language do NOT include _____.（大连外国语学院2008研）

A. informative function

B. interpersonal function

C. metacognitive function

【答案】C

【解析】语言的主要功能包括信息功能，人际功能，施为功能，感情功能，寒暄功能，元语言功能和娱乐功能。

III. True or False

1．Wherever humans exist, language exists. （对外经贸2006研）

【答案】F

【解析】语言是在人类出现相当一段时间之后才出现的。

2．Onomatopoeic words can show the arbitrary nature of language. （清华2000研）

【答案】F

【解析】拟声词表明语言并不是完全任意的，一些拟声词的发音与其意义还是有一定联系的。

3．The bow-wow theory is a theory on the origin of language.（大连外国语学院2008研）

【答案】T

【解析】语言的起源包括“汪汪”，“噗噗”等理论。

4．When language is used to get information from others, it serves an informative function. （清华2001研）

【答案】F

【解析】语言是用来陈述某件事情，提供信息或用作推理，信息功能是语言最重要的功能，一般出现在陈述句中。

5．Prescriptive linguistics is more popular than descriptive linguistics, because it can tell us how to speak correct language.

【答案】F

【解析】描写式和规定式的语言学是分析语言的两种不同的方法，不能简单的说谁好谁坏之说。

6．The phatic function refers to language function for establishing or maintaining social contact rather than for exchanging information or ideas. （清华2001研）

【答案】T

【解析】寒暄功能是指建立与保持社交联络而不是交换信息。

7．Onomatopoeic words are totally arbitrary.

【答案】F

【解析】拟声词并不完全是任意的，与其表达的声音具有一定的相似性。

IV. Explain the following terms.

1．Phatic function(communion) （武汉大学2005研）

【答案】Phatic function: The phatic function of language refers to the use of the language which often consists of small, seemingly meaningless expression for setting up a certain atmosphere or maintaining social contacts rather than for exchanging information or ideas. For example, greetings, farewells, and comments on the weather in English could serve this function.

2．Function

【答案】Function: the role language plays in communication (e. g. to express ideas, attitudes) or in particular social situations (e. g. religious, legal).

3．Functionalism

【答案】Functionalism or functional linguistics refers to the study of the forms of language in reference to their social function in communication. Functionalism tends to explain the forms of language by attributing a determining role of its function.

V. Short answer questions

1．Briefly explain how language is (a) systematic, (b) symbolic, and (c) social. （北外2011研）

【答案】First, language is systematic: it consists of recurrent elements which occur in regular patterns of relationships. All languages have an infinite number of possible sentences, and the vast majority of all sentences which are used have not been memorized. They are created according to rules or principles which speakers are usually unconscious of using or even of knowing if they acquired the language as a young child.

Second, language is symbolic: sequences of sounds or letters do not inherently possess meaning. The meanings of symbols in a language come through the tacit agreement of a group of speakers.

Third, language is social: each language reflects the social requirements of the society that use it, and there is no standard for judging: whether one language is more effective for communication than another, other than to estimate the success its users may have in achieving the social tasks that are demanded of them.

（考查语言的系统性，象征性及社会性。)

2．What is the directive function? （西安交大2008研）

【答案】Directive function is one of functions of language. Language is used to get the hearer to do something. Most imperative sentences are of this function. For example, the sentence “Close your book and listen to me carefully!” performs a directive function. Other syntactic structures or sentences of other sorts can, according to J. Austin and J. Searle’s “Indirect speech act theory” at least, serve the purpose of direction too, e.g., “If I were you, I would have blushed to the bottom of my ears!”

3．How well, in your opinion, does the word “communication” represent the function of human language? （北二外2008研）

【答案】We use language for an almost infinite number of purposes, from writing letters to gossiping with our friends, making speeches and talking to ourselves in the mirror. But the primary function of language is to transmit information and to convey commands, feelings and emotions. That is, language is a tool of communication. The term “communication” can be used to cover much of the function of language. This function can be further divided into more specific functions, such as phatic function/communion, directive function, informative function, interrogative function, expressive function, evocative function, performative function etc.

4．What’s your understanding of language?

【答案】Language is a system of vocal symbols used for human communication. Language must be a system, since elements in it are arranged according to certain rules, they cannot be combined at will. Language is arbitrary in the sense that there is no logic connection between the word and the thing it refers to. Language has symbolic nature: words are associated with objects, actions, ideas by convention. For all languages, the primary medium is sound, no matter how well developed are their writing system. Language is human-specific, it is very different from the communication system other forms of life possess.

5．Briefly explain what phonetics and phonology are concerned with and what kind of relationships hold between the two. （北外2002研）

【答案】By definition, phonetics is the study of speech sounds, including the production of speech, while phonology is the study of the rules governing the structure, distribution, and sequencing of speech sounds and the shape of syllables. Both phonetics and phonology are concerned with speech. Phonetics is the study of the production, perception, and physical properties of speech sounds; phonology attempts to account for how they are combined, organized, and convey meaning in particular languages. Phonetics is the study of actual sounds, that is, the analysis and modeling the speech signal; phonology is concerned with a more abstract description of speech sounds and tries to describe the regularities of sound patterns in different languages or within a language. In this sense, phonetics is concrete, while phonology is abstract. What phonetics studies is the speech sound, namely phone, what phonology studies is phoneme.

6．Why do we say language is primarily vocal? （厦门大学 2009研）

【答案】Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. Language is primarily vocal, because sound or speech is the primary medium for all human languages, developed or “new”. Writing systems came much later than the spoken forms. The fact that small children learn and can only learn to speak (and listen） before they write (and read） also indicates that language is primarily vocal, rather than written. The term “human” in the definition is meant to specify that language is human specific.

7．Can you think of some words in English which are onomatopoeic?

【答案】Creak: the sound made by a badly oiled door when it opens. Cuckoo: the call of cuckoo. Bang: a sudden loud noise. Roar: a deep loud continuing sound. Buzz: a noise of buzzing. Hiss: a hissing sound. Neigh: the long and loud cry that a horse makes. Mew: the noise that a gull makes. Bleat: the sound made by a sheep, goat or calf.

8．Do you think that onomatopoeia indicates a non-arbitrary relationship between form and meaning?

【答案】No matter whether you say “Yes” or “No”, you cannot deny that onomatopoeia needs arbitrariness. Before we feel a word is onomatopoeic we should first know which sound the word imitates. Just as what is said in Chapter One, in order to imitate the noise of flying mosquitoes, there are many choices like “murmurous” and “murderous”.  They both bear more or less resemblance to the genuine natural sound, but “murmurous” is fortunately chosen to mean the noise while “murderous” is chosen to mean something quite different. They are arbitrary as signifiers.

9．Communication can take many forms, such as sign, speech, body language and facial expression. Do body language and facial expression share or lack the distinctive properties of human language?

【答案】On the whole, body language and facial expression lack most of the distinctive properties of human language such as duality, displacement, creativity and so on. Body language exhibits arbitrariness a little hit. For instance, nod means “OK/YES” for us but in Arabian world it is equal to saying “NO”. Some facial expressions have non-arbitrariness because they are instinctive such as the cry and laugh of a newborn infant.

10．Can you mention some typical expressions of phatic communion in Chinese? There is the dialogue between Ms. P and Ms. Q. on p. 12. When someone sneezes violently, do you say anything of the nature of phatic communion’! Have you noticed your parents or grand-parents say something special on such an occasion?

【答案】Some of the typical phatic expressions in Chinese are:吃了吗？家里都好吧？这是去哪里呀？最近都挺好的？

If someone is sneezing violently, maybe your parents and grandparents may say:” Are you ok?”, “Do you need to see a doctor?”, “Do you need some water?”, “Do you need a handkerchief?”, “Do you have a cold?” “or something like these to show their concerns.

11．There are many expressions in language which are metalingual or self-reflexives, namely, talking about talk and think about thinking, for instance, to be honest, to make a long story short, come to think of it, on second thought, can you collect a few more to make a list of these expressions? When do we use them most often?

【答案】There are many expressions such as to tell the truth, frankly speaking, as a matter of fact, to be precise, in other words, that is to say, Such expressions are used most frequently when we want to expatiate the meaning of former clauses in anther way in argumentation.

12．What are the major functions of language? Think of your own examples for illustration.

【答案】The three major functions of language are the descriptive function, the expressive function and the social function.

The descriptive function is also referred to as the cognitive, or referential function. It is assumed to be the primary function of language. It is the function to convey factual information which can be asserted or denied, and in some cases even verified. E.g. “The disaster is the most serious one the country has ever seen."

The expressive function is also called the emotive or attitudinal function. It supplied information about the user's feelings, preferences, prejudices and values. The example is "I will never go there for the rest of my life."

The social function is also referred to as the interpersonal function. It serves to establish and maintain social relations between people, e.g. "How are you doing recently?"

VI. Essay questions

1．Illustrate the significance of studying speech Sounds in linguistics. （大连外国语学院2008研）

【答案】Language is first and foremost a “system of vocal symbols”. Human beings are capable of making all kinds of sounds, but only some of these sounds have become units in the language system, as we have seen in the discussion of language Speech sounds had existed long before writing was invented, and even today, in some parts of the world, there are still languages that have no writing systems. Therefore, the study of speech sounds is a major part of linguistics.

Analysis of speech sounds can be approached on two levels: phonetics and phonology. The formal deals with speech organs and their functions, speech sounds, waves carrying speech sounds, analysis and processing of the sounds by the listener. The latter is concerned with the organization of speech within specific languages, or with the systems and patterns of sounds that occur in particular languages. Both phonetics and phonology are main branches of linguistics.

To study speech sounds, linguistics need to analyze the minute processes and activities of the speaker and explain the way speech organs move to convey meaning. The theory and methods thus developed can be applied to numerous other fields. For example, people who work in recording, language description and language teaching all have some interest in phonetic knowledge while those who work in audiology, speech therapy and speech pathology must have a solid foundation in phonetics and phonology.

2．Examine the following two statements about language，and discuss the similarities and differences between them. Do you agree with the two statements? Explain your answer.

(1) Sapir (1921: Language): “Language is a purely human and non-instinctive method of communicating ideas，emotions and desires by means of voluntarily produced symbols.”

(2) Bloch and Trager (1942: Outline of Linguistic Analysis): “A language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols by means of which a social group co-operates.” （北外2005研）

【答案】Similarities:

(1) Both definitions stick to the fact that language is primarily a matter of speech because the primary medium of language is sound. Sapir illustrates this idea by implying that the produced symbols are auditory and Bloch and Trager by explicitly using the word “vocal”.

(2) Both definitions allude to the fact that the association between the words and the things that they denoted is rarely inherent, Sapir by using the word “symbols” and Bloch and Trager by placing emphasis on “arbitrary” and “symbols”.

Differences:

(1) Sapir’s definition emphasize that language relates to communication between human beings. It is very different from the communication systems of other creatures, such as bird songs and bee dances. Bloch and Trager do not clearly indicate this property, only saying that it is possessed by a social group.

(2) Sapir also considers that language is “non-instinctive” and “voluntarily produced”. Thus for him language does not include such instinctive forms of communication as smiling and cries of pain, etc. However, Bloch and Trager’s definition do not include this feature.

(3) The element “system” in Bloch and Trager’s definition reflects the fact that language provides us with the framework for generating appropriate utterances rather than providing us with an infinite store of ready-made utterances. Still elements of lacunae are combined according to rules.

(4) The function of language is indicated differently in two definitions. Sapir sees language as for communicating ideas, emotions and desires, while Bloch and Trager considers it for a social group’s co-operation. Sapir’s definition proposes “communication” as the principal function of language and specifies what is communicated; Bloch and Trager only vaguely points out that language can be used for co-operation.

Each of the two definitions has its own special emphasis, and it not totally free from limitations. We think the two definitions grasp some defining properties of language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication, for example, “vocal”, “arbitrary”, “symbol”, “purely human”, “a system”. But either has some limitation. As for Sapir’s definition, whether one considers language to be instinctive or not is an issue. Language is instinctive in so far as we are all born with a predisposition to speak, we all acquire a language without tuition and when we speak we do not consciously convert our thoughts into speech. Language is, however, non-instinctive in that we can choose what to say or whether to say anything at all. Both the definition’s description of language’s function is not precise. Sapir’s definition confines language only to communicating ideas, emotions and desires, and Bloch and Trager’s definition does not point it out at all.

3．Linguistics is not the only field concerned with language. Other disciplines such as sociology, psychology, ethnography are also preoccupied with language. （中山大学2008研）

【答案】Since language has both individual and social aspects, it is naturally of interest to psychologists and sociologists among others.

Many psychologists are interested to investigate the interrelation of language and mind, in processing and producing utterances and in language acquisition for example, language development in the child, such as the theories of language acquisition; biological foundations of language, and a big topic – the relationship between language and cognition, so there are psycholinguistics.

Socialists who are interested in the relations between language and society do researches concerned both sociology and linguistics, including the social functions of language and the social characteristics of its users.

When anthropologists enlisted the help of linguists to study unwritten languages, anthropology and linguistics became closely associated in the early days of anthropological fieldwork. In contrast with other linguists, anthropological linguists are interested primarily in the history and structure of formerly unwritten languages. They are concerned with the emergence of language and also with the divergence of languages over thousands of years.

Therefore, it is not surprising there are some branches of macrolinguistics that show an interdisciplinary nature.

4．What are the seven functions of human language? （人大2006研）

【答案】According to Hu Zhuanglin, language has at least seven functions, and they are illustrated as follows:

(1) Informative function. It means that language is the instrument of thought and language serves an informational function when used to tell something. It is also called ideational function in the framework of functional grammar. The declarative sentences such as “This is a book.” are the typical illustration of this function.

(2) Interpersonal function. The interpersonal function means people can use language to establish and maintain their status in a society. It is the most important sociological use of language. In the framework of functional grammar, this function is concerned with interaction between the addresser and addressee in the discourse situation and the addresser's attitude toward what he speaks or writes about. For example, the ways in which people address others and refer to themselves (such as Dear Sir, Dear Professor, Johnny, yours, your obedient servant) indicate the various grades of interpersonal relations.

(3) Performative function. The performative function of language is primarily to change the social status of persons, as in marriage ceremonies, the sentencing of criminals, the blessing of children, the naming of a ship at a launching ceremony, and the cursing of enemies. The kind of language employed in performative verbal acts is usually quite formal and even ritualized. The performative function can extend to the control of reality as on some magical or religious occasions. For example, in Chinese when someone breaks a bowl or a plate, the host or the people present are likely to say sui sui ping an (every year be safe and happy) as a means of controlling the forces which the believers feel might affect their lives.

(4) Emotive function. The emotive function is one of the most powerful uses of language because it is so crucial in changing the emotional status of an audience for or against someone or something. It is a means of getting rid of the nervous energy when people are under stress, for example, swear words, obscenities, involuntary verbal reactions to beautiful art or scenery; conventional words/phrases, for example, God, My, Damn it, Wow, Ugh, Ow, etc.

(5) Phatic communion. The phatic communion refers to the social interaction of language. People always use some small, seemingly meaningless expressions such as Good morning, God bless you, Nice day, etc., to maintain a comfortable relationship between people without any factual content.

(6) Recreational function. The recreational function means people use language for the sheer joy of using it, such as a baby’s babbling or a chanter’s chanting.

(7) Metalingual function. The metalingual function refers to the fact that people can use language to talk about itself. For example, I can use the word “book” to talk about a book, and I can also use the expression “the word book” to talk about the sign “b-o-o-k” itself.